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Students' History of the 
United States 



By 

A. B. Alderman 

Graduate of State Teachers' College and Superintendent 
of Schools Linn County, Iowa 




Educator Publishing Co. 
Marion, Iowa 






COPYRIGHT 1912 
BY A. B. ALDERMAN 



THE TORCH PRESS 
CEDAR PAPIDS 

IOWA 



@C!.A3JU03 4 






PREFACE 

As an elementary text book on United States History, the 
author, in the preparation of this hook has endeavored to use 
language which is clear and concise, yet simple, to such an extenl 
that he hopes it will appeal to the reader. Teachers have for 
some time recognized the fact that the greatest evil of modern 
education is the waste of brain energy without an adequate 
result in intellectual development, and. experience has taught 
that in no study is this more true than in the study of history. 
It has therefore been the object, in the preparation of this book, 
to remove all such obstacles, yet at the same time to furnish 
material sufficient for the cultivation and development of the 
faculties of Observation, Imagination, Reasoning, Judgment, and 
Memory, as well as Presentation. 

In the grouping of historical events into series, the history of 
a country naturally divides itself into epochs, each epoch char- 
acterized by similar conditions, which cause it to appear to 
the student as a unit. In this book the following order will be 
observed : 

Prediscovery Conditions, Period of Exploration, Period of 
Colonization, Period of the Revolution and The Confederation, 
Neutrality and Commercial Independence, the Thirty Years 
Peace, Slavery and the Great Civil War, the Period of Recon- 
struction, and the Period of Expansion. 

In presenting the subject from this text, the teacher will 
stimulate interest and aid students much in their understanding 
of the subject, if this division is carefully pursued. 

The old method of teaching literature and history, as separate 
branches, is passing away, because it leaves the student without 
any sense of relation in the two studies. The remedy is sought 
in a happy compromise. The names of our persons of literary 
fame are placed as nearly as possible in the time they began to 
write, while citations are made frequently to their works in the 
footnotes. Reviews of these books should be given in the lessons 
in which they appear. It is hoped by this means to cultivate in 
the child a desire for good literature. 



6 PREFACE 

Especial attention is called to the cross references given to all 
important subjects, the map references given at the beginning 
of each section, and the notes which will be found invaluable in 
research or source work. 

Expressions of gratitude are due to instructors, students, and 
friends for their great aid in many timely suggestions. The 
faults are doubtless many, but it is hoped that, in spite of them, 
the following pages may be of some real service in the study of 
the history and literature of our country. 

A. B. A. 

Marion, Iowa, 1912 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Pre-Discovery Conditions 

Causes Leading to the Discovery of America . . 9 

Period of Exploration 

Exploration by the Spanish ..... 16 

Exploration by the Portuguese ..... 24 

Exploration by the French ..... 25 

Exploration by the Dutch ..... 32 

Exploration by the English ..... 34 

Natives of North America ..... 40 

Period of Colonization 

Colonization of Virginia . . . . . . 5i 

Colonization of Massachusetts ..... 64 

Colonization of New Hampshire and Maine . . . 75 

Colonization of Connecticut ..... 77 

Colonization of Rhode Island . .... 80 

Colonization of New York ..... 82 

Colonization of Pennsylvania ..... 88 

Colonization of Delaware . . . . . 91 

Colonization of Maryland ..... 92 

Colonization of the Carolinas ..... 95 

Colonization of Georgia ...... 98 

Inter-Colonial Wars ...... 100 

Home Life, School Advantages and Literature of the Period of 

Colonization . . . . . . . 112 

Period of the Revolution 

England's Colonial Policy ..... 126 

Growth of Democracy . . . . . . 126 

The Struggle . * . . . . . . 142 

Independence Declared . . . . . . 151 

The War in 1777 ...... 158 

The War in 1778 ...... 164 

The War in 1779 ...... 168 

The War in 1780 ...... 173 

The War in 1781 ...... 178 

The United States Under the Confederation 

Difficulties which Beset the New Government . . . 184 

Financial Troubles ...... 184 

Foreign Affairs ....... 185 

Land Cessions ....... 185 

Ordinance of 1787 ...... 186 

Annapolis Convention ...... 186 

Constitutional Convention ..... 187 

Constitution Adopted ...... 188 

Bloodless Rebellion ...... 188 



CONTENTS 



Neutrality and Commercial Independence 

Administration of George Washington . . . . ]89 

Administration of John Adams ..... 201 

Administration of Thomas Jefferson .... 211 

Administration of James Madison .... 222 

Thirty Years Peace 

Administration of James Monroe .... 236 

Administration of John Quincy Adams .... 242 

Administration of Andrew Jackson .... 246 

Administration of Martin Van Buren .... 255 

Administration of Harrison and Tyler .... 257 

Slavery and the Great Civil War 

Causes of the War Including the Mexican War . . . 263 

Administration of James K. Polk .... 263 

Administration of Taylor and Fillmore .... 270 

Administration of Franklin Pierce .... 274 

Administration of James Buchanan .... 280 

Home Life, School Advantages, Literature and General Condi- 
tions of this Period ...... 288 

Administration of Abraham Lincoln .... 291 

Period of Reconstruction 

Administration of Andrew Johnson . . . . 32S 

Administration of IT. S. Grant ..... 335 

Period op Expansion 

Administration of B. B. Hayes ..... 343 

Administration of Garfield and Arthur .... 346 

Administration of Grover Cleveland .... 349 

Administration of Benjamin Harrison .... 354 

Administration of Grover Cleveland .... 360 

Administration of William McKinley Including the Spanish- 
American War ...... 363 

Administration of Theodore Roosevelt .... .177 

Administration of W. H. Taft, Home Life. School Advantages, 

Social Advantages, Literature, etc., of the Present Time . 379 

Appendix 

Declaration of Independence ..... 393 

Constitution of the United States of America . . . 397 

Articles in Addition to Amendment of the Constitution of 

United States of America ..... 406 

Presidential Electors from 1789 to 1908 ... 410 



PREDISCOVERY CONDITIONS 

Principal Causes Leading- to the Discovery of America. 

1. The circumstances which led to the discovery of the 
new world were due to the economical, social, political, and 
geographical conditions in the Old World. 

Asia, as yet, was a vast, vague, unexplored country. To the 
east of Asia were Japan, China, and the East Indies. These 
countries produced gold, silver, precious stones, spices, pearls, 
silks, and many manufactured articles, which were marketed 
in Europe. 

For many years the people of Asia and Europe had carried 
on trade with each other through middlemen. The products 
of the East were sent by water and caravan to the markets 
of Europe, especially to the cities of Venice and Genoa. In 
these cities the goods brought from the eastern countries were 
traded for trinkets, tools, and the beautiful Venetian glass- 
ware. 

2. Fall of Constantinople. — The middlemen had at Leasl 
three different routes over which they might bring their 
product from the Orient to Europe. One of these routes was 
by way of the Red Sea, another by the way of the Caspian 
and Black Seas, and a third by way of the Persian Gulf and 
Syria. However, in 1453, Sultan Mohammed II captured Con- 
stantinople, and all commerce through that city was at an 
end. The Turks also had complete control of the entire Le- 
vant, and the Turkish corsairs frequented all the waters of 
the eastern Mediterranean. The people of Europe were thus 
suddenly cut off from their trade with the Orient, so they be- 
gan at once to look for a water route to the East. 

3. The Renaissance. — In Italy, about the year 1300. an in- 
tellectual and artistic revival took place. This continued 
throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Many of 
the speculations regarding the shape and movements of the 
earth ceased to be mere possibilities, but were accepted by the 
learned as probabilities. 



10 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

4. Travels of Polo. — Marco Polo was a man who had actu- 
ally crossed Asia and had spent several years in the Orient. 
Returning to his home in Venice he joined with the Venetians 
in a battle against Genoa. Polo was captured by the Genoese 
and taken, with others, to Genoa, where he was imprisoned. 
While in prison he related his travels to his fellow prisoner, 
who made notes and from these notes x wrote a book. This 
book attracted a great deal of attention among scholars, and 
gave more information regarding the surface and geography 
of the world as it was at that time than any book that had as 
yet been written. 

5. Sir John Mandeville. — Sir John Mandeville, who was a 
great traveler, had made many observations - which was evidence 
to him that the world was round. One hundred and fifty years 
before the New World was discovered, he had noticed that in 
the southern seas the sailors were guided by the south star, 
as the north star was not in sight ; also when in the northern 
seas they were guided by the north star, as the south star was 
not in sight. Thus he reasoned that if the earth were flat both 
stars would be visible at the same time, and since they were 
not visible at the same time, the earth must be round. He also 
reasoned that since these stars remained stationary while the 
rest of the stars seemed to move around the earth, therefore 
the earth was not only round, but revolved on its axis while 
the sun and stars remained stationary. 

6. The Astronomers Calculate. — In 1470 the astronomer 
Toscanelli had calculated, quite exactly, the circumference of 
the earth. Copernicus and other students of astronomy, by 
their labors, also did much to enlighten the public, at this 
time, in regard to the movements, shape, and geography of 
the earth. 

7. Invention. — The inventor also did his share in making 

i The following are extracts from the account in this book of Japan and 
Java: "I will tell you a wonderful story about the palace of the lord of 
that island (Cipangu). You must know that he hath a great palace which 
is entirely roofed with fine gold, just as our churches are roofed with 
lead . . . Moreover, all the pavement of the palace and the floors of 
its chambers are entirely of gold ... a good two fingers thick and the 
windows are also gold, so that altogether the richness of this palace is past 
all bound and all belief. 

"They have also pearls in abundance, which are of a rose color but fine, 
big and round and quite as valuable as the white ones. They also have quan- 
tities of other precious stones. ' ' 

2 Skinner, Studies in Literature and Composition, p. 32. 



PREDISCOVERY CONDITIONS 



11 



it possible for sailors to leave the land and steer boldly out 
into the unknown sea. The compass, astrolabe, and gun-pow- 
der had just come into common use. The printing press also 
was now used to such an extent that people began to be taught 
by the printed page as well as by mere folklore. 




THE ASTROLABE 
The astrolabe is the earliest form of the modern quad- 
rant, used for determining the latitude and longitude of a 
given point by the angular distance of the planets from 
the horizon. 



8. The Portuguese. — Prince Henry the Navigator, fourth 
son of King John I, took the lead in maritime discovery. He 
established schools of navigation and an observatory at Iagres, 
near Cape St. Vincent. During this reign the Portuguese dis- 
covered and explored the western coast of Africa as far south 
as Cape de Verde. Other expeditions, which were arranged 
by his pupils, resulted in the discovery and exploration of 
Maderia, Azores, and the Cape de Verde Islands. 



J 2 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

9. Diaz. — In 1406, during the reign of King John the Per- 
fect, Bartholomew Diaz discovered the southern point of Af- 
rica and named it the Cape of Storms. This name the king 
changed to Cape of Good Hope, because there was now good 
hope of finding a sea-passage to India. 

10. Gama. — In 1498 Vasco da Gama, another bold Portu- 
guese navigator, doubled the Cape of Good Hope and sailed 
into the harbor of Calicut, — not Calcutta.— where he planted 
the first European colony in the East Indies. He had by this 
voyage discovered the water-way to the East Indies. This 
served to revolutionize the world s commerce by diverting the 
trade of the East from the Venetians to the Portuguese. 

11. Christopher Columbus. — All information concerning the 
life of Columbus before 1492, is enveloped in obscurity. Ac- 
cording to books written by his son, Ferdinand Columbus, 3 
he was born about 1446, at or near Genoa. The father of 
Columbus was by trade a wool-comber, and it is quite prob- 
able that Columbus learned the trade, but did not work long 
at it, as he went to sea when he was a youth of about fourteen 
years. 

From a letter written by Columbus in 1501 to Ferdinand 
and Isabella, he states that he had sailed the seas for forty 
years and had gone to every place where navigators had ever 
sailed. From this we may infer that he had been to the Can- 
aries, Guinea, and probably Iceland, where he may have heard 
the folklore stories of a country to the west. 

12. Columbus Meets Perestrello.— About 1470 Columbus 
and his brother Bartholomew went to Lisbon [Plate No. 1]. 
and here Columbus met Perestrello, whose daughter he soon 
afterward married. Perestrello was one of the ablest of King 
Henry's navigators, and at his death ho left to Columbus and 
his wife numerous maps and charts which were studied with 
great interest. 

13. Columbus Gets Encouragement.— Later, about 14^4. 
Columbus wrote to Toscanelli. asking his opinion about finding 
the Indie;; by sailing west. He received a very encouraging 
reply, accompanied with more charts and maps, showing with 
what ease the vovage could be made. 

14. Columbus' Seeks Aid.— Columbus now began to urge 
his views upon influential friends. An appeal was made to 

sc K Adams in the Makers of America series. Fiske 's Discover)/ of 
America, vol. i, and Andrew's History of the United States, vol. i, pp. 37-77. 



PREDISCOVERV CONDITIONS 13 

King John II, of Portugal [Plate No. 1] ; but the learned geog- 
raphers of Portugal ridiculed the plan. However, the king 
secretly dispatched an expedition westward, which soon be- 
came discouraged and returned to Lisbon. Columbus becom- 
ing acquainted with the deceit of King John, left Portugal for 
Spain, to lay his plans before Ferdinand and Isabella. His 
brother, Bartholomew, went to England and France to im- 
plore the aid of these nations in behalf of Columbus. 

15. Columbus Courageous and Patient. — Nowhere was Col- 
umbus successful until seven long years had passed, during 
which time he had been held up to ridicule and had been 
treated in a very unkind and unjust manner. 

16. Columbus Successful. — After the fall of Granada, Queen 
Isabella agreed to aid him in carrying out his plans. On April 
17, 1492, the agreement was signed [see Frontispiece], and 
Columbus immediately started for Palos. [Plate No. 1.] 

Columbus, after reaching Palos, found it very hard to find 
men who were willing to enlist on such a voyage of discovery. 
To induce them to enlist, debts were forgiven, civil actions 
suspended, and criminals were released from jail in order to 
make up the necessary crews. Three caravels, the Santa Maria, 
Pinta, and the Nina were pressed into service. After numerous 
delays and many disappointments, on Friday, August 3, 1492, 
[old style] one-half hour before sunrise, the three caravels, 
with ninety souls on board, sailed out of the harbor of Palos 
[Plate No. 1] into the unknown ''Sea of Darkness." 4 Early 
in the morning of October 12, 1492 [old style], after a voy- 
age turbulent with storm and mutiny, land was sighted, and 
at daylight Columbus and his men landed and took formal 
possession of it for Castile. This island was one of the Bahama 
group, and Columbus named it San Salvador. The Indians, 
however, called it Guanahani [Plate No. 1], and recent in- 
vestigation seems to identify it with either Watling's Island 
or Cat Island. 

After finding this to be a small island, Columbus again set 
sail and coasted along the shores of Cuba and Hayti [Plate 
No. 1] , touched the coast here and there, and sent reconnoiter- 

4 Tourgee, Out of the Sunset Sea ; C. B. Adams 's Biography of Cohimous ; 
Fiske's Discovery of America; also Tlrwaites's Colonies (Epoch Series), pp. 
23-27, and Higginson's Larger History of the United States, early chapters; 
Old South Leaflets, nos. 29, 30, 33, 34, 37, 71, 90, 102 and 115; Hart's Source 
Boole of American History, ch. i, nos. 1 and 2. Cooper's novel, Mercedes of 
Castile, is a tale of the first voyage of Columbus. 



14 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ing parties inland to examine the land and get information re- 
garding the government, and the rich products of the east. 
He was deeply disappointed in not finding towns and cities, 
as he supposed he was on the coast of Asia. At last, becoming 
weary, he gave up the search and sailed for Palos, Avhere he 
arrived March 15, 1493. Here he was received by the people 
with great ceremony, and soon he was summoned to appear 
before Ferdinand and Isabella at Barcelona, where he was 
received with great honor. 

17. Other Voyages of Columbus. — [Plate No. 1.] Columbus 
made three other voyages. On the second voyage he estab- 
lished a colony in Hayti. 

On his third voyage he found the little colony in disorder 
and for three years he labored to restore order. He was finally 
superseded by Bobadilla, who sent Columbus in chains to 
Spain. By royal decree he was released and again received 
with great honor by Isabella. Again he was furnished with 
funds and ships, and in 1502 he made his fourth and last 
voyage. 

While on this voyage he was shipwrecked on the shores of 
Jamaica [Plate No. 1]. Finally help arrived and he sailed for 
Spain, where he arrived in 1504. Queen Isabella was on her 
death-bed and Columbus, poor, neglected, dejected, and broken- 
hearted, died at Valladolid in May, 1506. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION. 

18. The Line of Demarcation.— [Plate No. 1.] After the 
discovery of America it became necessary in some way 
to divide the heathen nation, America, between the two 
great Catholic nations, Spain and Portugal ; so Pope 
Alexander VI issued two proclamations which gave to 
Spain all she might discover west of a line running 
north and south, one hundred leagues west of the 
Azores and Cape Verde Islands, and to Portugal all the laud to 
the east of this line. 

This line was very indefinite, as there is near to ten degrees 
difference between the western part of the Azores and the eastern 
part of the Cape Verde Islands; so by a subsequent treaty Spain 
and Portugal made the meridian which is three hundred and 
seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands the Line of De- 
marcation. The line had a great deal to do with the settlement 
and colonization by Spain and Portugal, but it seems to have in 
no way affected England, France, or any of the other nations, 
in their schemes of colonization. 



sHigginson's A Book of American Explorers; Explorers and Founders 
of America, by Anna E. Foote and A. W. Skinner; The Bomance of Colonisa- 
tion, by G. Barnett Smith. 



SPANISH, 1492-1852. 

19. Impelling Motives. — Spain for the past three centuries 
has been reaping a harvest, soAvn by a greedy and short- 
sighted people. 

The first great power that moved her to take an interest in 
the New World was gold ; then also the Spanish were eager for 
dominion, and last, the winning of souls to the church. However, 
in his greed for riches and power, the Spaniard was content to 
sacrifice his duty to the "Cross." 

The bold Spanish leaders pillaged and destroyed the cities 
and fields, stole the gold and jewels, murdered or enslaved 
the inhabitants and as a reward, they were praised and flat- 
tered by the pow r er behind the throne. 

20. Juan Ponce de Leon Discovers Florida. — [Plate No. 2.] 
In 1493 Ponce de Leon had accompanied Columbus on his sec- 
ond voyage of discovery. Later he became governor of Porto 
Rico, but was relieved of this position by the king on account 
of the claims of the family of Columbus. He still continued 
to reside here, and was informed by the Indians of a country 
to the northwest where gold was abundant and where a won- 
derful fountain existed, in which if one would bathe it would 
impart to him perpetual youth. He at once fitted out an ex- 
pedition and started in search of the fabled fountain. After 
discovering several islands, he at last, on Easter day, 1513, 
came to a land of beautiful foliage. In honor of the day he 
named the land Florida. 

Later he attempted to found a colony here, but was attacked 
by the natives and driven back to the ships. During this at- 
tack Ponce de Leon was struck by a poisoned arrow and died, 
soon after his return to Cuba, from the effects of the wound. 

The character of the man is quite well expressed by the 
epitaph on his tombstone, which reads, "Here rest the bones 
of a man who was a lion by name and still more by nature." 

21 Balboa and the Pacific Ocean.— [Plate No.'l.] Balboa, 
who had accompanied Darien on an expedition, became gov- 
ernor of a colony established on the north shore of the Isthmus 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 



17 



of Darien. Hearing from some natives, of another ocean be- 
yond the mountains, he formed a company and set out to find 
it. The same year, — 1813, — in which Ponce de Leon discov- 
ered Florida, Balboa waded into the Pacific Ocean and plant- 
ing the Spanish banner, declared that the ocean and all the 
shores it might touch belonged to the crown of Spain forever. 

He afterwards was appointed viceroy of the "South Sea," 
(Pacific Ocean), and married the daughter of Davila, governor 
of Darien. 

Later Davila became jealous of Balboa, on account of his 
successes, and caused him to be executed. 

22. Cortes Conquers the Aztecs. — 1519. [Plate No. 2.] Cor- 
tes, who had shown great abil- 
ity as a warrior in the subjuga- 
tion of Cuba, was sent out by 
the governor of that island to 
establish the Spanish authority 
in Mexico. 

From Vera Cruz, which he 
founded and named, he march- 
ed into the country of the Mon- 
tezumas,' 1 with an army of less 
than five hundred men, and by 
1519 had captured the entire 
country of Mexico, caused the 
and robbed the natives of all 

their vast riches. He returned to Spain in 1528 and was made 

"Captain General." 

23. Magellan Discovers Straits of Magellan and His Ship, 
Victoria, Completes the Circuit of the Globe. — [Plate No. 1.] 
Without doubt the most remarkable feat of this period Avas 
the circumnavigation of the globe by the Portuguese seaman. 
Magellan. Sailing under the flag of Spain, he in September, 

1519, started on his voyage around the world. In October, 

1520, his ship entered the straits which now bear his name, 
and in a few weeks it had sailed into the South Sea. which 
Magellan had renamed the Pacific Ocean. By March. 1521. 
Magellan had reached the Philippines. Here, in an expedition 

sPrescott's Conquest of Mexico; Wallace's The Fair God; Eider Hag- 
gard's Montezuma's Daughter; Old South Leaflets, nos. 20, 34, 35, 36, 39 
and S9. An account of Coronado 's expedition is also given in Hart's Source 
Book of American History, no. 3. 




HERXANDO CORTES 

death of King: Montezuni; 



18 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

against the natives, he was killed, but one of his captains. 
El Cano, was able to complete the journey around the Cape of 
Good Hope to Spain, arriving there with the ship Victoria in 
September, 1522, just thirty years from the time Columbus 
started on his first voyage. 




Photograph by Voris 

This is the tree under which Cortes sat down and wept, after his memorable 
defeat on the night of July 1, 1520, the night in which he and his troops were driven 
out of the City of Mexico by the nephew of Montezuma, the last of the Aztec princes. 
This tree stands on the old causeway extending from the City of Mexico to Tacuba, and 
was the old causeway over which the memorable retreat was made by Cortes and his 
army on the night in question, which is known in history as the "Noche-Trista", which 
in Spanish, means "The Dismal Night." The tree is guarded very carefully by the 
Mexican government. 

24 De Ayllon and San Miguel.— [Plate No. 2.] About 1520 
there was organized a company of seven men, to procure 



PERIOD OP EXPLORATION 1!) 

laborers for the mines and plantations of St. Domingo. The 
chief person in this organization was Lucas Vasquez cle Ayllon. 
Sailing into St. Helena Sound, South Carolina, they visited 
the natives and distributed presents among them. The Indians 
were then invited to visit the ships. This they did and when 
a great crowd had gotten on board, the Spaniards immediately 
set sail. However, this treacherous crime did not prove profit- 
able, as one ship went down with all on board, while in the 
other, the greater number of the captives sickened and died. 

The Spanish monarch commended de Ayllon for this act of 
deceit and treachery, and as a reward, gave him a commission 
to conquer the country. In 1526 de Ayllon. with 600 people, 
began to build a town on the James River, near where the 
English afterward built Jamestown. lie called this toAvn San 
Miguel, and employed negro slaves to build it. This is sup- 
posed to be the first instance of negro slavery within the 
present boundaries of the United States. 

25 Pizarro Conquers Peru, 1531-1533.— [Plate 1.] After 
Balboa had been executed (see Section 21), his friend, 
Francisco Pizarro, look up and carried to completion the 
work which he had begun. 7 

Pizarro left the Isthmus of Panama with only one hundred 
foot soldiers and sixty-seven horsemen, and invaded Peru. 
He reduced the Peruvian empire to a Spanish province, and 
by so doing accumulated unbounded wealth. Cruelty seems 
to have been his highest ideal, for he oppressed the natives 
with great severity, murdered their king, and made slaves of 
many of the inhabitants. After nine years of an unhonorable 
reign he fell a victim to a conspiracy. 

26. De Narvaez Meets Disaster.— 1538.— [ Plate No, 2.] It 
was thought that since some of the Indians in the vicinity of 
Mobile Bay w r ere wearing ornaments of gold, there must 
be a gold bearing district somewhere near. In 1528 Narvaez, 
with 300 men, landed at Tampa Bay. 

He encountered all the hardships with -which de Ayllon had 
contended, but finally reached the Gulf of Mexico. 

Disappointment reigned supreme, and it was decided to 
reach Mexico if possible. Five rude boats were built and Nar- 
vaez and his men started on their perilous journey. One night 
they anchored in an outlet of the Mississippi River. During 
the night a storm arose. Nearly all perished. The Indians 

7 Prescott 's Conquest of Peru. 



20 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

captured four of the survivors — three Spaniards and one ne- 
gro. These men, after living with the Indians as prisoners, 
finally, in 1536, reached a Spanish settlement in Mexico. 

27. Coronado and the Cities of Cibola, and the Plains of 
Quivira. — [Plate No. 2.] The three Spaniards and one negro, 
above mentioned, had heard wonderful stories from their 
captors (the Indians), of vast gold mines to the northwest, 
and the wonderful cities of Cibola. 8 In 1540 Coronado started 
from Mexico with 300 Spaniards and many Indians to find 
these gold fields. The expedition was a failure, as they found 
no gold. However, this expedition is of great interest to cit- 
izens of the United States, as it was Coronado and his men 
who first visited New Mexico and Arizona, where they found 
the Pueblo Indians. These Indians lived then, as now, in houses 
built of stone and sun-dried brick. There are no doors in the 
buildings, and access can only be gained by ascending ladders 
to the top of the building. It is also supposed that Coronado 
was the first to visit the Grand Canon of the Colorado River, 
and the buffalo covered plains of Nebraska and Kansas (Qui- 
vira). It may be said that this expedition led to the founding 
of Santa Fe in 1572. 

28. De Soto and the Mississippi.— 1539.— [Plate No. 2. } 
When Pizarro captured Peru he had with him a very brave 
captain, whose name was Ferdinand de Soto. De Soto, on re- 
ceiving his share of the gold taken from the Peruvian Indians, 
became a very rich man. Returning to Spain, the emperor 
borrowed a great sum from him. Probably in part payment 
for this debt and also for the great bravery de Soto had shown, 
the emperor made him governor of Cuba and president of such 
parts of Florida as he should conquer. 

In 1531) de Soto landed near Tampa Bay with an army of 
about 600 men. He immediately started into the interior and 
marched northward into what is now South Carolina. He then 
went southwestward, probably to what is now knowm as Mo- 
bile Bay. After enduring many hardships, during which many 
of iiis men were slain by Indians, he again marched toward the 
southwest and finally reached the Mississippi River, where he 
sickened with a fever, and died, in 1542. 

De Soto had made the Indians believe that he was immortal, 

sLoomis's The Spanish Pioneers; Old South Leaflet, no. 1'0. Prof. Bol- 
ton, of the Texas University, now engaged in research study, has issued a 
statement to the effect that Coronado came as far northeast as Iowa. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 21 

so his men were forced to bury him during - the night in the 
Mississippi River, that the Indians might not know that he 
was dead. His men then hastily constructed boats and sailed 
down the river into the gulf. A storm arose and nearly all were 
lost. The survivors finally reached the Spanish settlement in 
Mexico. 

No gold was found and the Indians were not subdued, hence 
the campaign was a failure. 

29. Cabrillo and California. — Cabrillo (Kab-reel-yo^ was 
the first to view what is now the California coast. In 1542 he 
reached San Diego (sahn-de-a-go) harbor, where he died. His 
pilot continued the exploration north as far as the forty-third 
degree of latitude. 

BO. Menendez Founds St. Augustine, 1565.— [Plate No. 2.] 

It will be remembered thai ac- 
cording to the order issued by 
Pope Alexander VI. Spain 
was entitled to all the New 
World lying west of the line 
of demarcation. During the 
religious wars the Huguenots 

OLD SPANISH SIEGE GUNS* had decided to found a Colony 

in America, and in 1564-65. under the leadership of -Jean Kibaut, 
a setllement was begun on the St. John's River (River of May . 
[See Section 38.] This, coming to the ears of the Spanish, an ex- 
pedition was at once fitted out and. under the leadership of 
Menendez, sailed for Florida to capture and destroy the Hu- 

* These two tiegs guns are from Fort Marion, formerly Fort San Marco, 
Florida — the oldest fortification on the American continent. They were 
originally Spanish and came into possession of tin- United States with the 
purchase of Florida from Spain in 1821. Fort Marion was first established in 
1565 by the Spaniards under the command of Pedro Menendez. For their 
protection he constructed a fort, and equipped it with eighty siege guns of 
this kind. These guns were used in defense of the colony in 17(12 and again 
in 1741. when the English attempted To capture the fort and expel the 
Spaniards from Florida. The excellent service these yans rendered, caused 
the English to abandon their plan and St. Augustine remained a Spanish 
colony until 1763, when Florida was ceded to England through the exchange 
of Cuba for Florida. Then came the American Revolution, and at its 
close in 1783, Florida was ceded back to Spain by England. In 1S19 Sji.-tui 
sold Florida to the United States and on July It), 1821, the Spanish Hay 
was hauled down and the United States flag was hoisted at all military st;i 
tions. These guns are, therefore, the oldest original armament belonging to 
the United States, and may now be seen at the Iowa State Teachers' College, 
Cedar Falls, Iowa, where they have been placed on the campus as a perma- 
nent decoration by the G. A. R. 



22 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

guenot colony. On landing Menenclez built a fort, and laid 
the foundations of Fort San Marco (now Fort Marion), and 
founded St. Augustine in 1565. This is the oldest city in the 
United States. 

31. Espejo (es-pe-ho) Founds Santa Fe (sahn-tah-fa), in 
1582. — [Plate No. 2.] As mentioned in the paragraph about 
Coronado, an interest was created which, in 1582, led to the 
founding of Santa Fe. This is the second oldest city in the 
United States, and was founded by Espejo, who also explored 
and named New Mexico. 




Photograph by Torts 
SAN MIGUEL CHURCH, SANTA FE, NEW MEN ICO 
This old church was built not Inter than 1582. According to some, it 
is said to have been built in 154.",. The adobe walls are from three to 
five feet in thickness. The paintings of the Annunciation on either side 
of the altar are by Giovanii Cimabue, A. D. 1287, and the old bell — St. 
Joseph — weighing 780 pounds was cast in August, 1356. 

The two story adobe building north of the church is a remnant of the 
Indian pueblo, "and is therefore much older than the church. 

32. Reasons for Spanish Failure.— "As the seed, so the 
harvest" was never more vividly portrayed than in the history 
of the Spanish scheme of exploration and colonization. As al- 
ready stated, the motives which interested the Spaniard in the 
New World were gold, power, and the church. The capture of 
Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1492, was the beginning 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 2:! 

of the Spanish golden ago. and the defeat of the Armada in 
1588 was the beginning of the fall. The Spanish ambition was 
to conquer and plunder. Had her energies been devoted to 
conquest and colonization, Spain would doubtless be today a 
leader among the nations of the earth. Let us, however, credit 
the unfortunate nation with the work which she did, in estab- 
lishing the many missions throughout the southwestern part 
of the United States. 



THE PORTUGUESE, 1500-1582. 



13. Araericus Vespucius and America, 1501. — [Plate No. 1.] 
If we may believe his own account, 
Americas Vespucius was a great ex- 
plorer and adventurer. 9 He claims to 
have visited the mainland of South 
America in 1497. If this be true he is 
then the first person to behold the 
mainland, as the date of his arrival 
is prior to that of the Cabots. [Sec- 
tion 45.] However, there is no doubt 
that in 1501 he sailed along the east- 
ern coast of South America, prob- 
ably as far south as the Island of 
South Georgia. He returned to Lis- 
bon in 1502, and in a private letter, 
he called attention to the fact that the 
lands lie had visited might be called a new world. 

This letter finally was published, and aroused a great deal 
of interest. In 1507 a young German geographer (Waldsee 
Midler) suggested that inasmuch as Americus Vespucius had 
discovered a new fourth part of the earth, it should be named 
after him and be called America. The name finally came into 
general use. 




A ME RICUS VKSPUCIUS 



9 Old South Leaflet, no. 34. 



THE FRENCH, 1524-1687 

34. The French Fishermen.- -| Plates 1 and 3.] Tn 1497, when 
the C'abots were sailing near Newfoundland [see Section 45], 
they noticed that the waters were inhabited by great numbers of 
codfish. This soon became known to the French fishermen, who 
immediately began to leave the old fishing grounds on the western 
coast of France, for the coast of Newfoundland. About 1504 
Cape Breton was named by fishermen from Brittany. 

The church, at this time, observed very many fast-days, 
when meat was forbidden, so there became a greal demand 
for fish. Therefore many of the French people became fisher- 
men. Finally, when France decided to explore and colonize l0 
the New World, these fishermen not only furnished bold and 
able bodied seamen, but they, also, were men who already 
knew a great deal about the New World. 

35. The French and Indians. — Among the first French pion- 
eers to enter the New World were the Jesuit missionaries. 
These men were willing to endure greater hardships even, than 
the Indian, and therefore soon gained his admiration and re- 
spect. Furthermore, the French were a commercial people. 
Their colonial revenue was derived from the traffic in furs. 
This pursuit was common to both Frenchman and Indian, and 
naturally led to friendly relations between them. Then the 
French freely intermarried with the Indians and adopted many 
of their ways. The French pioneer possessed that adaptability 
which, fortunately, made of the Indian a friend and helper, 
instead of an enemy, as was the case with the Spanish pioneers. 

36. Verrazano and New France. — [Plate No. 2.] In 1524, 



loParkman's Pioneers of France in the Xeie World, pp. 1-215; Higgin- 
son's American Explorers, pp. 99-117 and 143-166; Thwaites's The Colonies. 
pp. 32-35. See also Fiske's Discovery of America, vol. ii, pp. 493-500 and 
511-528: Pioneers of France in the New World, The Jesuits in North Amer- 
ica, La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West, Bomanoe of Dollard, and 
The Lady of Fort Saint John, Dickson's The Black Wolf's Breed, Conan 
Doyle 's The Refugees. 

Sheppard Stevens's romance, The Sword of Justice, is a story of the con- 
test of Spain and France for the possession of Florida. 



26 STUDENTS' HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Verrazano (var-ra-tsa-no), an Italian, sailing under the flag of 
Francis 1. reached the coast near what is now known as Cape 
Fear." He was searching for a passage to India, and may 
have sailed as far north as New York, or even New Hamp- 
shire or Newfoundland. He named the country New France. 
In his letters to the French king he gives a very vivid descrip- 
tion of both the country and the Indians which he visited. By 
reason of this voyage, France laid claim to all the land between 
Cape Fear and Newfoundland. 

37. Cartier Discovers the St. Lawrence. — [Plate No. 2.] Ten 
years after Verrazano 1 - had sailed along the Atlantic coast 
of the New World, Cartier [Kar-te-a] sailed into the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence, and, raising a large wooden cross, took posses- 
sion of the country in the name of the king of France. In 
1535 he sailed up the St. Lawrence River past what is now 
Quebec, to the Indian town of Hochelaga [ho-she-lah-gah] , 
which he named Mont Real — Montreal — [Mount Royal]. His 
ship being frozen in the ice, he spent the winter in this region. 
Many of his men died, and when spring came, those that were 
still alive returned to France. Cartier, not disappointed, in 
1540-43, tried to establish a colony in Canada. In this venture 
he was associated with Lord Roberval. Cartier and Roberval 
soon became dissatisfied. France was engaged in a civil war, 
and could give no aid, so the venture was a failure. 

38. John Ribaut [re-bo] and the Huguenots Attempt to 
Found a Colony in Florida. — [Plate No. 2.) In 1562 a settle- 
ment was begun on the St. John's River [River of May], under 
the auspices of Coligny (Ko-leen-yee). who sent Ribaut to es- 
tabish a colony in America for the persecuted Huguenots. 
Port Royal, South Carolina, was built, and a settlement es- 
tablished. Ribaut returned to France to bring more colonists, 
but on account of trouble at home, was unable to return at 
once. The few who had been left at Port Royal were soon with- 
out food, and in hopes that they might reach France, they 
built a rude ship and put to sea. While on the sea they were 
captured by the English and carried to London. 

In 1564 Landonniere and Ribaut returned. They also landed 
at the St. John's River, and built a fort near the mouth of the 
river. This fort was named Fort Carolina. 

ii Old South Leaflet, no. 17. 

12 The Discovery of the Old North West, by James Baldwin. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 



27 



When Menendez [see Section 30] landed at St. Augustine, Ri- 
baut at once sailed with his fleet to attack him, and while on 
the voyage, Menendez marched overland, surprised and mur- 
dered nearly the entire population of Fort Carolina. 13 

Ribaut was ship-wrecked and most of his men who survived 
the wreck, surrendered to Menendez. and were immediately 
put to death. Thus the French lost their foothold in this part 
of the New World. Neither was she able to call Spain to ac- 
count for the brutal murder of her colonists at Fort Carolina. 
but a gentleman (de Gorges) equipped an expedition and 
sailed to Florida, and in a manner scarcely less cruel than that 
pursued by Menendez destroyed several Spanish forts, killing 
men, women, and children. However, the Spanish, were 
able to hold the country, and the religious liberty for which 
the Huguenots had striven, was lost. Had the French been 
successful, the future English colonial map might have been 
far different. 

39. Champlain, the Father of New France. — (Plate No. 2.] 
So far the French had been very un- 
fortunate in their schemes of coloniza- 
tion. The fur trade had now reached 
such a magnitude that it became 
necessary to establish a permanent 
colony. 14 

In 160:} Champlain (sham-plane! 
sailed up the St. Lawrence River to 
where, in 1541, Cartier had viewed 
the Indian town, Hochelaga [Section 
37]. Neither the Indian town nor the 
fort, which Cartier had built, were to 
be found. However, on the present 
site of Quebec, Champlain erected a fort, and then returned 
to France. 

In 1604 Champlain came again, with De Molds, who had 
received from the French king a tract of land lying between 
the fortieth and the forty-sixth degree of latitude, which he 




SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN 



is The Flamingo Feather, by Monroe 

14 Champlain, Samuel de. Voyages, 1604-1618; ed. by W. L. Grant. N. 
Y., 1907, Seribner. Champlain, Voyages <in<l Explorations, 1604-1616; tr. 
by A. N. Bourne. N. Y., 1906, Barnes. Dix, E. A., Champlain, the Foundi r 
of Neiv France. N. Y., 1903, Appleton. Sedgwick, H. J., Samuel de Cham- 
plain. Bost., 1902, Houghton. 



28 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

termed Arcadia. They brought over two shiploads of colonists. 
Some of these landed on what is now the coast of Nova Scotia, 
and founded Port Royal. This was soon abandoned, and the 
colonists all returned to France. Champlain, ever courageous, 
persuaded De Monts to make another attempt and in 1608, two 
more shiploads of colonists arrived and founded Quebec. Dur- 
ing the first winter nearly all the colonists died, but in the 
spring other colonists arrived from France. Port Royal was 
again settled and France had at last acquired a permanent foot- 
hold in the New AVorld. 

In 1609 Champlain joined with the Algonquins, or Hurons, 
in an attack on their enemies, the Iroquois, or Five Nations, 
who lived in central New York. 

The two forces met each other near Lake Champlain and 
fought one of the most important battles, in many respects, 
ever fought in the New World. As the two battle lines neared 
each other, the Hurons suddenly formed a gap in their ranks, 
through which Champlain and his associates marched. This 
placed Champlain in front of the battle line of the Hurons and 
he became their leader. When coming in close range of the 
Iroquois, Champlain opened fire with his arquebus (gun) and 
was able to kill the three principal war chiefs of the Iroquois. 

The Iroquois had never before heard or even seen a gun. 
Consternation reigned supreme and the Hurons gained an easy 
and complete victory. 

However, the Iroquois never forgot, nor forgave the French 
for this deed. Instead they became their bitter enemies, siding 
against them in all their disputes and aiding their enemies — 
the English — in every way, until England finally drove the 
French from the western continent. 

The French, on this account, were unable to enter the Hud- 
son Valley, and in their fur industry were compelled to go up 
the Ottawa River and across the Georgian Bay, instead of using 
the more direct St. Lawrence route. 

40. Father Marquette and Joliet.— [Plate No. 2.] Father 
Marquette (mar-kef), in his travel among the Indians, had 
heard of a great river, which the Indians called the "Father 
of Waters." 15 

Frontenac (fron-te-nac), the governor of Canada, thought 
this river might empty into the South Sea (Pacific Ocean) or 

is Heroes of the Middle West, by Mary Hartwell Catherwood. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 



9Q 



Gulf of Mexico, so he commissioned Joliet (Zho-lya) and Mar- 
quette to explore the river, and if possible, discover its mouth. 
In 1673, with their Indian guides, they rowed their birch 
bark canoes across Lake Michigan, Green Bay, and up the Fox 
River to the place of its nearest approach to the Wisconsin 
River. They then descended this beautiful river and on June 
17th, entered the great Mississippi, down which river they con- 
tinued their journey, 
until they had passed 
the mouth of the Ar- 
kansas River. They were 
now convinced thai 
they were on the same 
river as the "Mississip- 
pi of the Spaniards" 
and encountering a hos- 
tile tribe of Indians, 
they were forced to re- 
turn. On the return trip 
they 1 raveled up the Il- 
linois River and entered 
Lake Michigan at or 
near the present site of 
Chicago, and later ar- 
rived at Green Bay. 
Joliet now returned to 
his home at Quebec, but Marquette returned to the Illinois 
Indians, where he founded a mission. He soon contracted a 
fever and died, in a wretched bark cabin situated on a little 
stream which flows into Lake Michigan. He was buried in 
the sand by his companions. Later, however, the Indians took 
up the remains and carried them to Mackinaw, where they 
buried them beneath the floor of the mission. 

41. La Salle and New France.— [Plate No. 2.] La Salle 
[La-sal] was educated for a Jesuit priest, but left the order, 
and on this account, under the French laws, could not inherit 
any of his parents' estate. He, however, received a grant of 
land from his king, near the present site of Montreal. 

Becoming interested in the fur trade, he built a fort, which 
was not only to furnish protection, but was to be the base of 
his supplies. It is without doubt, also true that La Salle 10 




Photograph by Finch 
Where Joliet and Marquette discovered the Mis- 
sissippi in 1673. Mississippi in the foreground 
Wisconsin in the background. 



is The Story of Tonty, by Mrs. Catherwood. 



30 STUDENTS' HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

believed he might find a water route to the Pacific, thus at 
last discovering the route to China, so he named this fort 
La China. 

Governor Frontenac was the firm friend of La Salle, and 
the two built a fortified post (Fort Frontenac) on Lake On- 
tario [Plate No. 3]. Other forts were built by La Salle on 
Lake Ontario and at Niagara Falls. He also explored Lake 
Michigan and Lake Huron. He had learned of Marquette's 
voyage, and determined to explore the Mississippi Valley. Early 
in the spring of 1681. accompanied by his faithful friend and 
comrade. Tonti, he left Fort Miami, on the Maumee River, and 
by carrying and dragging the canoes and supplies, finally 
reached open water a few miles below Peoria. By February, 
1682, they had reached the Mississippi, and after a long and 
tedious voyage, they rowed into the Gulf of Mexico. Here he 
look possession of the entire Mississippi Valley in the name of 
the king of France. 

Near Ottawa, during the return trip, he built Fort St. Louis. 
on what is now known as Starved Rock, so named from the 
fact that in later years a band of Illinois Indians were besieged 
by their enemies here, until they starved to death. 

By this voyage, France was able to claim, by right of ex- 
ploration, all the territory that was later known as the Louisi- 
ana Purchase. [Section 344.] 

After living in the wilderness for nearly sixteen years, La 
Salle now for the fourth and last time returned to France, to 
receive aid and encouragement. The king, after hearing La 
Salle's wonderful description of the Mississippi Valley, was 
glad to aid him in planting a colony at the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi. The colonists left France three hundred strong, but 
instead of landing at the mouth of the Mississippi, the pilot 
landed them three hundred miles to the west, on the shores of 
Texas. La Salle now decided to travel overland to the Missis- 
sippi River, and had started on this journey when he was brut- 
ally murdered by his enemies. 

Throughout the entire time La Salle was in the New World, 
his enemies were trying to get rid of him. Several times In- 
dians were hired to murder him, but he escaped; several times 
poison was placed in his food, but he was ever on the alert 
and the scheme failed ; several times sickness overcame him, 
but he rallied, and went ahead with his great work; but now, 
when victory seemed in view, when the schemes of this noble 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 31 

man seemed almost realized, then it was that his enemies mur- 
dered him by shooting him through the head. They divided 
his clothing- among themselves, and cast the body to the wolves 
of the prairie. Thus passed the life of one of the heroes of 
modern history. 



THE DUTCH, 1609-1613. 

42. Holland and the New Netherlands in America. — In 1581, 
Holland and the Netherlands, under William the Silent, declared 
their independence of Spain. However, the Dutch were continu- 
ally at war with Spain or Austria until 1609, when both nations 
agreed to a truce for twelve years. 

Although Holland had been engaged in long and costly wars, 
yet she was, at this time, one of the greatest commercial na- 
tions of the world. She had more merchantmen afloat than 
any other nation, and Amsterdam and other cities of Holland 
had become great commercial centers. 

43. The East India Company.— In 1602 several of the Dutch 
merchants organized a company known as the East India Com- 
pany. This company was interested in buying spices, silks, 
and other commodities of the East Indies, and shipping and 
selling the merchandise in European ports. 

It took a merchantman nearly a year to make a trip from 
Holland, around the Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies 
and back again, and a still longer time was needed to go 
around South America and across the Pacific Ocean and back ; 
so the company was very anxious to find a shorter water route. 

44. Henry Hudson.— [Plate No. 2.] In 1609, Hudson, an 
English mariner, was engaged by the East India Company to 
find, if possible, a shorter route to the East Indies. Hudson, 
in his ship, the Half Moon, crossed the Atlantic, and after 
sailing about the coast for some time, entered and rediscovered 
the river now known as Hudson River. He sailed up the 
river as far as the present site of Albany. Here he sent 
out exploring parties, but of course, no route was to be found. 
However, Hudson made friends with the Indians, while, it will 
be remembered, at about this same time, Champlain had in- 
curred their enmity. 

Hudson reported his discoveries to the East India Company, 
but the members of this company were looking for a shorter 
water route to India, and not for new territory, so were not 
interested. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 



:;:: 



This voyage, however, gave to the Dutch a presumptive claim 
to this part of the New World, and soon another commercial 
company was formed, which is best known as the West India 




THE HALF MOON IN QUEST OF THE FAR EAST 



Company, and. as we shall see, this company established col- 
onies, and also trading posts, where they traded for furs with 
the Indians. [Section 119.] 



THE ENGLISH 1497-1607. 




SEBASTIAX CABOT 

the king to allow him 
English flag- in search 



15. Cabots Sail Under English Flag.— [Plate No. 1.] When 
BartholomeAv Columbus applied at 
the English court for aid, so that 
Christopher Columbus might make 
an attempt to find a new route to 
the East Indies [Section 14], Henry 
VII thought it to be only the scheme 
of a foolish and dreaming man, and 
gave it no further heed; but now, 
since land had really been discov- 
ered, this king became much inter- 
ested. So John Cabot, another Vene- 
tian, who was living at Bristol, Eng- 
land, had no trouble in persuading 
and his three sons to sail under the 
of new lands and a route to India. 
Accordingly, in May, 1497, 17 the ship Matthew, with a crew 
of eighteen men, sailed from England, and in about fifty 
days sighted land off the coast of Labrador. They soon 
returned to England, and the king, being much pleased 
with the description given of the land which had been discov- 
ered, issued a patent to the Cabots. The next year the Cabots 
with a company of about three hundred, sailed from England. 
On this voyage they not only visited Labrador, but explore! 
the cojisI ;is far south, probably, as North Carolina. Thus the 
Cabots antedated the discovery of the mainland by Columbus, 
by about one year. 

It is generally supposed that John Cabot had charge of the 
first expedition, and that his son. Sebastian Cabot, had charge 
of the second expedition. It may be both men sailed on both 
voyages, or it may be neither accompanied the other. How- 
ever, on these voyages England based her claim to all of North 
A inerica. 
46. The Elizabethan Seamen. — As soon as Elizabeth as- 



17 Old South Leaflets, nos. 37, 92, 116, 117, IIS, 119 and 122. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 35 

cended the throne of England, she began to promote interesl 
in all branches of industry. 1 - Especially was this true in 
commercial lines. In 1562 Sir John Hawkins, one of the most 
brilliant knights of the queen's court, engaged in the slave 
traffic. Negroes were kidnaped from the western coast of 
Africa, and sold to Spanish land owners in the West Indies. 
On one of these voyages, his five ships were attacked in the 
Mexican port of San de Ulloa. by thirteen Spanish ships, and 
he escaped with only tw T o of his ships. 

47. Sir Francis Drake. — Sir Francis Drake, a nephew of 
Hawkins, was in this fight, and at once decided to engage in 
expeditions of reprisal against the Spanish merchantmen. In 
1577, after making several piratical voyages to the West In- 
dies, he started from Plymouth, England, on a famous voy- 
age in which he sailed around the world. He plundered Span- 
iard 19 and Indian alike. Tons of silver and hundreds of thou- 
sands of dollars in gold were captured. Ships were destroyed, 
towns were burned, and Spaniards and natives terrified and 
murdered. He entered San Francisco Ray and named the sur- 
rounding country New Albion. From here he sailed westward 
across the Pacific Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and 
in 1680. he reached England with a shipload of Spanish booty 
for his queen. He was the first Englishman to circumnavigate 
the globe, and as a reward for his bravery, he was knighted 
by the queen. 

48. Martin Frobisher. — In 1576. Martin Frobisher sailed in 
quest of a northwest passage to the Indies. After cruising 
around Labrador, he sailed into the Hudson Straits and en- 
tered what is now known as Baffin's Bay. He. like the Cabots, 
did not find the northwest passage, but he took back to Eng- 
land some stones which the Indians assured him contained 
gold. The queen became much interested, and with her aid, 
Frobisher made two other voyages to the New World; one in 
1577, the other in 1578. Roth were failures and finally he re- 
turned to England without either gold or glory. 

49. Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — Among the English adventur- 
ers to devote themselves to the exploration of the New World, 

is Kingsley's Westward Ho; Creighton 's Age of Elizabeth; Higginson's 
American Explorers; Thwaites's The Colonies. 

isHenty's Under Drake's Flag; Fletcher's Around the World with 
Drake; Barnes, Drake and Sis Yeomen. 



86 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



was Sir Humphrey Gilbert. His plan was to establish per- 
manent colonies. 

He was aided in his ventures by his half-brother. Sir Walter 
Raleigh, and he made his first attempt in 1579, but had the ill- 
luck to meet a fleet of Spanish vessels which came near de- 
stroying his entire fleet. In 1583 he sailed again and landed 
on the coast of Newfoundland. Here he, like Frobisher, filled 
his ships with dirt and stones containing mica, which they be- 
lieved to be gold, and after much suffering started on the re- 
turn trip to England, but the fleet encountered a severe storm 
and the ship on which Gilbert sailed, with all on board, was 
lost. 

50. Sir Walter Raleigh and the Lost Colony. — After learn- 
ing of the sad fate of Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert, Elizabeth transferred the char- 
ter to Sir Walter Raleigh. 2 " He at 
once sent out an exploring party to 
find a suitable place to establish a col- 
ony. Amadas and Barlowe, who had 
charge of this party, landed on Roan- 
oke Island in Albemarle Sound, and 
after exploring the island they re- 
turned to England, and reported it to 
be ' ' a land of perpetual flowers ' ' where 
"the people were most gentle, loving, 
and void of all guile and treason." 
Such inflated reports were sure to cre- 
ate great interest in the new country. 
The queen named the country Virginia, in honor of her own 
virgin life; she also, in 1585, aided Raleigh to fit out a large 
expedition, which carried a company of colonists under Ralph 
Lane to Roanoke Island. However, the colony did not prosper. 
The Indians became hostile, food became scarce, and the col- 
onists became disappointed because no gold was to be found. 
The situation became critical, when Drake, who stopped to 
visit the colony, took pity on the colonists and carried them 
back to England. These colonists introduced into England 
two American products: the "Irish" potato and tobacco. 

Raleigh, undaunted, still made one more attempt to found 
a colony. In 1587 he sent out, as colonists, entire families. 
The expedition was placed under the leadership of John White 

soEodd's Sir Walter Salt igh. 




SIR WALTER RALEIGH 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 37 

and started for the Chesapeake Bay. but in some way landed. 
instead, at Roanoke Island. The fate of this colony was ter- 
rible, for in 1590, when White, who had returned to England 
for aid. returned to Roanoke Island, no trace of the colony was 
to be found. Among the lost was White's grandchild, Virginia 
Dare, the first white child born in the territory of what is now 
the United States. 

51. Spain and England at the Time of Queen Elizabeth. — 
During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Spain and England were 
bitter rival nations. Spain was essentially of the Roman Cath- 
olic faith, while England, since the time of Henry VIII. had 
become more and more, a Protestant nation. 

Not only did the two nations differ in their religious creeds, 
but they came in contact with each other in other ways. The 
Netherlands, it will be remembered, revolted, and with Eng- 
land's aid. had become independent of Spain. [Section 12.] 
The English sailors had become very bold. They captured and 
robbed the Spanish vessels loaded with gold and silver from 
South America and Mexico. 

Philip TT, king of Spain, decided to crush the English 
power, and, in 1588, sent againsl her the Greal Armada. How- 
ever, the skill and courage of the English sea captains, with 
their small, swift sailin.e' vessels, were more than a match for 
the Spaniards and the numerous ships of the Armada. Eng- 
land won and the power of Spain was crushed and broken. 

England now entered the period of her greatest prosperity. 
She became a world power. Many Protestant refugees re- 
turned to England. Many of the queen's greatest ministers 
were inclined toward Puritanism. Such also was the ea^e 
with her great naval heroes. This being the case, and the 
Great Spanish Armada out of the way. it was not long until 
the people of the different religious faiths began to plan the 
establishment of colonies in the new world, where they could 
worship according to the dictates of their own conscience. 

52. Physical Features of the Continent, North America.— 
[Plate No. 2.] Before entering upon the study of any histor- 
ical period, it is well, first, to become acquainted with the pre- 
vailing conditions, in order that we may more easily under 
stand and be able to give a reason for the different events 
as they are presented to us. Most historical events are the 
outgrowth of natural and prevailing conditions, and not the 
product of chance or accident; so before taking up the study 



38 STU DENTS ' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the "Period of Colonization"- 1 it is essential that we first 
make a study of the physical map of North America, and more 
especially the Atlantic plain. Also we should become ac- 
quainted with the habits of the different Indian nations, their 
geographical homes, the relations of the different tribes to 
each other, and their relation to the different foreign nations 
who were colonizing the new T world. 

A survey of the physical map of North America will disclose 
two great highlands. 

The greater of the two highlands runs parallel with the 
coast of the Pacific Ocean, while the lower, shorter, and nar- 
rower one runs parallel with the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. 

53. Great Central Plain.— [Plate 2.] Extending between 
these two great highlands is what is known as the great central 
plain. This vast plain is also traversed by a slight elevation 
extending east and west just north of the Great Lakes. This 
elevation forms the watershed of the continent, causing the 
rivers to the north to flow into the Arctic Ocean, while those 
of the south flow into the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 

The Mississippi is the main river to the south of this eleva- 
tion, and all the country which is drained by this river and its 
tributaries is known as the Mississippi Valley. 

54. The Atlantic Plain.— [Plate No. 2.] The eastern high- 
land is known as the Appalachian Mountains, and the country 
lying between these mountains and the Atlantic Ocean is known 
as the Atlantic plain. The physical features of the Atlantic 
plain are especially interesting to the student of United States 
history, from the fact that nearly the entire history of the 
United States up to the time of the Revolutionary War is simply 
the history of the Atlantic plain, including a very small sec- 
tion of the great central plain. 

Generally great highlands divide great rivers, but in some 
cases rivers flow through the higher parts of these highlands 
through gaps which the rivers themselves have made. It will 
be well to note that this is the case with the Hudson, Delaware. 
Susquehanna, and Potomac, all of which flow through the At- 
lantic plain. These rivers were generally navigable and fur- 
nished the natural route for western immigration, as they 
pierced the mountains and extended far inland, coming in close 
contact with the tributaries of the Mississippi River. 

2i Thwaites's The Colonies (Epoch Series), ch. i, pp. 1-7; Kinsrlale's Old 
Northwest, pp. 1-5; Charming 's Student's History of the Unit at States, In- 
troduction. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 39 

The Atlantic plain was provided with many good, natural 
harbors. The soil was fertile and the climate and moisture 
suitable for raising numerous crops. It was. also, rich in de- 
posits of iron and coal, and the country was covered with great 
forests. Everything was provided by nature for the home- 
seeker, and when the narrow plain became over-populat rd. 
nature had provided routes by which the people might seek 
homes further to the west in the great Mississippi Valley. 



NATIVES OF NORTH AMERICA 

55. The Indian, Why So Called. — We all remember that 
when Columbus landed in the New World he did not realize 
that he had really discovered a new continent, but rather 
thought he had reached one of the East Indian islands. Nat- 
urally the natives which were found on these islands were 
called Indians. Thus the name has been applied to all the na- 
tives of the western continent. 

56. The Indian and His Conquerors. 22 — The Indian, on first 
ci uning in contact with the white man. received him as a friend. 
He placed confidence in the white stranger, and treated him 
with great respect. 

It has often been said that the Indian never betrays a true 
friend, and never forgives an enemy. The history of the In- 
dian, in his dealings with Spanish, French, and English, bears 
l his out. It will be remembered how the Indians were treated 
by the Spanish, and in no place in history do we find where they 
did not oppose every step which the Spanish made toward col- 
onizing this country. On the other hand, the French made 
friends with certain Indian nations, while they incurred the 
displeasure of others. The same may be said of the English, 
and invariably the Indian tribes or nations remained either the 
faithful friends or the dreaded enemy. The Indian would wil- 
lingly risk his life for his friends, and would as willingly take 
the life of his enemy in the most unexpected manner, time, and 
place. 

William Penn treated the Indians in a very friendly manner. 
In every thing he tried to do what was right in his dealings with 
them. [Section 135.] Naturally they became friends of AVil- 
liam Penn and his people, and to this day we may well say that 
a man wearing a Quaker hat, or a lady wearing a Quaker bon- 
net, may enter the domain of a hostile tribe of Indians and be 
sure of entertainment and protection. 

57. The Indian Races, Nations, and Clans. — [Plate No. 2.] 2: 

22 Hiawatha, by Longfellow; Ramona, and A Century of Dishonor, by 
Helen Hunt Jackson. 

23 Stories of Indian Chieftains, by -Mary Hall Hnsted; Indian Linguistic 
Families of America North of Mexico, by J. W. Powell. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 



41 



For convenience in classification, we 
say that the Indians were divided into 
races, nations, and clans. The three 
great races with which our forefathers 
had to deal were those living' east of 
the Mississippi River. The Algonquin 
(al-gon-kin) race occupied all the conn- 
try west and north of the Great Lakes i s 
far as Hudson Hay. and east to Davis 
Strait. Tin's race also occupied what is 
now Illinois. Indiana, and parts of Ohio 
and Kentucky. This race, it will be re- 
membered, was befriended by Cham- 
plain, and always remained the firm 
allies of the French. The Iroquoian 
race was the strongesl in Central New 
York, where it formed the Five Na- 
tions. This race also occupied mosl oi 
the country from a line drawn from 
the southern short- of Lake George to 
the mouth of the St. Lawrence, south 
to the Delaware and Hudson, including 
the country around Lakes Ontario and 
Erie. A few tribes were also to be 
round in the Carblinas and Tennessee. 
The Muskoki race lived to the south of 
the Tennessee River. 
Each race was divided into nations. Thus the Algonquian 
was divided into the Mohegans. Narragansetts, and Pequots of 
New England; the Shawnees (Ca-ne) of the Ohio Valley; the 
Powhatans of Virginia, and the Delawares; also other unim- 
portant tribes scattered along the Great Lakes. The Iroquoian 
race was composed of the Hurons, Eries, Cherokees (Ohe-ro- 
ke), Tuscaroras (Tus-ka-ro-ras), and the Five Nations, which 
was composed of the Deuecas. Cayugas (Ka-yu-gas), Ononda- 
gas (On-on-da-gas), Oneidas (On-i-das), and Mohawks. The 
Five Nations was formed by a great chief named Hayenwatha 
(Hi-en-wa-tha), whose idea was to form the tribes into a 
strong confederacy which would be so strong that no one could 
trouble them. The Muskoki or Creek race was divided into 
the Alabama. Seminole, Choctaw, Chickasaw (Chi-ka-saw . and 
other nations. 




Photograph taken 
AN INDIAN 



42 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



The foundation of both the political and social organization 
was placed in a congregation of families called a elan. In all 
cases the organization was of a very loose nature. The clans 
were distinguished from one another by carved symbols, known 
as totems. The totem was generally named after some animal, 
which was held in great veneration by the family who claimed 
the name. If the totem of the mother was the bear, the chil- 
dren would take that name and not the name of their father, 
who necessarily must belong to another family, as a man could 
not marry a woman of his own totem or family. In some na- 
tions the squaws were placed on the same basis as chattels, 
wives being purchased and divorced at the will of their lord; 
but in other cases the squaws were supreme in the home, and 
might drive the man out at will. 

58. Food and Occupation. — The subsistence of the Indian 

consisted in the products 
of the chase, wild fruits, 24 
and the crops which were 
gathered from the culti- 
vated fields. The fruit, 
and the meat of both game 
and fish, was generally 
dried, as this was about 
the only method which the 
Indians know of preserv- 
ing food for future use. 
The work required in col- 
lecting food was about 
evenly divided between 
male and female. The wo- 
men tilled the soil, built 
the houses, gathered the 
fuel, and prepared the 
food. When not other- 
wise engaged she might 
weave mats, tan and make 
useful articles out of furs, 
or manufacture pottery 
from clay. The chief oc- 

Photogravh taken from life cupatioil of the man was 

an Indian squaw hunting, fishing, and war- 

fare. He supplied the meat and fish for food, hides, and furs 




-^ Smithsonian Eeport, 1885; American Indians, by Frederick Starr. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 



43 




INDIAN* WAR CANOES 

for clothing and building purposes, and engaged in warfare 
for revenge, as well as for protection of his home and hunting- 
ground. When not thus engaged, he built his boats and man- 
ufactured his tomahawks, bows and arrows, and other imple- 
ments of destruction. In some places these Indian industries 
were of a high standard, while in other places they were almost 
wholly neglected. 






LONG HOUSE OF THE IROQUOIS 

59. Houses and Clothing. — The Indians built many different 
kinds of houses and wigwams.-'"' ami they were built out of as 
many different kinds of material. The Iroquois built what is 
known as the long house. It was g°nerally from fifty to one- 
hundred and fifty feet in length and rectangular in form. The 



2 5 Houses and House-life of tlit American Aborigines by L. H. Morgan. 



U STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

frame Avas constructed of light poles tied together. These were 
covered with long strips of bark which were securely attached 
to the frame work. There were no windows, but an opening 
was made at each end. which served for a door. Through the 
house from door to door ran a central passage and on either 
side were compartments, cadi of which was occupied by a 
single family. The fires were built next to the central passage 
and the smoke escaped through openings in the roof. When 
more room was needed, one end of the building was removed, 
a new section built on, and the end replaced. The houses of 
the Algonquian were much like those of the Iroquois except 
much smaller and the entire village was generally inclosed 
within a stockade. 

The Sacs and Foxes, of Iowa, in the summer and fall live in 
large rectangular structures built on much the same plan as the 
houses of the Iroquois. In the winter and spring they live in 




Photograph taken from life 
WINTER HOME OF THE SACS AND FOXES 

small, low, oblong, dome-shaped affairs, made by covering the 
framework with mats, made from rushes and cat-tails. The 
fire is placed in the center and the smoke passes out through 
the hole in the top of the wigwam. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 



45 



The Indians of the plains take a number of poles and tie the 
smaller ends together and spread them out so as to form a cir- 
cle, the diameter of which is about ten or twelve feet. Over 
these poles are placed skins or mats which are sewed together 
and pegged to the ground. 



.V\ •' v. . ■&: 




Photograph taken from life 
HOME OF THE INDIANS OF THE PLAINS 



A most wonderful house is built by the Indians of the south- 
western part of the United States, known as the Pueblos. These 
Indians build their houses of adobe brick, which had been 
dried in the sun. The entire Pueblo village consists of a few 
great houses, each house being the home of a great many people. 
In former times there were no doors in the lower stories, but 
ladders were placed against the building, and the entrance to 
the house was in the second or third story. This plan may have 
been for protection, as the ladders might be drawn up after the 
people had entered the house. Small holes were built in the 
Malls, which served as windows and ventilators. 

The clothing of the different Indian nations varies as much 



46 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



as the habitation. It is designed as much for the freedom and 
movement of the limbs as it is for the comfort of the body. In 
the southern states the Indians dress very scantily. In the 
eastern states and on the plains the dress of the Indian con- 
sists chiefly of furs. The men generally wear a hunting shirt, 
breechcloth, buckskin leggings, moccasins, and in winter wear 
in addition a fur robe or blanket. The women clothe themselves 
in a loose upper garment, leggings, and moccasins. 

Both men and women are very fond of ornaments. In early 
times they made themselves necklaces of stone beads, or teeth 
and claws of wild animals, or oftentimes of the dried fingers of 
their human victims. They delighted much in decoration. They 
tattooed their bodies, painted their faces with bright colors, and 
bedecked their heads with eagle feathers, porcupine quills, or 
trophies of the chase and fight. The Indians of the Pacific slope 




AN OJIBWA INDIAN LETTER (from Schoolcraft) 

Mr. Schoolcraft and some assistants were exploring in the North- 
western part of the United States, and one morning as they were prepar- 
ing to break camp, one of the Indian guides — an Ojibwa Indian — was 
seen to fasten to a pole the letter shown above. On being asked the 
meaning ot the letter he explained that it would inform any Ojibwa 
Indian, who might find the letter, all about the Schoolcraft party. 
The eagle in the upper corner showed that they were from the capitol, 
Washington — therefore government people; also there were two Indian 
guides as indicated by their having no hats and being armed with spears; 
that there were eight soldiers and each armed with a gun; that there were 
six officers, their official position being indicated by the instrument which 
each carried in his hand — the captain a sword, the geologist a hammer, 
etc., t lie night before there had been three camp fires— one each, for offi- 
cers, soldiers, and Indian guides, that during the preceding day they bad 
secured a prairie chicken and a turtle and that these had been eaten by 
the officers. The letter had been fastened to a pole in which there had 
been cut three notches. This pole was stuck into the ground slantingly, 

the dii tion indicated by the pole being the direction taken by the 

party and the three notches indicating that they would travel for three 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 47 

wove a cloth out of grass from which they made their clothing. 
Very little attention was ever paid to the clothing of the child- 
ren, and this accounts for the high mortality which is to he 
found among the children of all Indian tribes. 

60. Religion and Education. 26 — The great central idea, in 
the religion of all Indian races, was the belief in the existence 
of ever present spirits. Some of these spirits were good and 
some of them bad. The "Great Spirit" was the Guardian An- 
gel of the Indian, while the "Evil Spirit" was his Satan. 

The only one who was supposed to communicate or have 
any power with these spirits was the medicine man. This 
Indian, by certain weird movements, maneuvers, ceremonials, 
and dances, was supposed to be able to drive away or over- 
come the power of the evil spirits. He, therefore, could care 
for the sick, and protect the crops from the storms and pests. 
The medicine men were, therefore, persons of much power 
and importance among the Indians. 

The primitive Indian did not know how to express his 
thought by means of written words. However, many tribes 
had a system of picture writing, similar in some respects to 
the Egyptian hieroglyphics. Specimens of these writings may 
be found in some of our museums. The best known is prob- 
ably the letter written by one of Schoolcraft's Guides, an 
Ojibwa Indian, who wished to inform his comrades of the 
whereabouts and doings of the Schoolcraft party. The Indians 
of Mexico and Central America developed their picture writ- 
ing to such an extent that they recorded their traditional his- 
tory and gave explicit direction regarding the worship of their 
numerous gods. The Aztecs also manufactured paper and 
books. 

61. The Indian's Future. — Although the Indian lias been 
very slow in adopting the ways of progress and civilization, 
yet it seems now that the crisis is over. The one thing which 
seemed to impede the progress of the Indian was the tribal 
relation and the reservation system which has been in vogue. 
This system now is being rapidly abolished and instead we 
have in vogue what is known as the allotment system. By 
this system the Indians are given individual tracts of land. 
The allotment is protected by the government so that the In- 
dian may not, by any fraudulent method, be swindled out of 
his land. There are now many thousands of Indian children 



26 Picture Writing of tin American Indians, by Garrick Mallery. 



48 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

in schools provided by the government for them. Oftentimes 
the doors of the district schools are opened by the state author- 
ities to Indian children, the plan being to give the Indian child 
an opportunity of studying in the classes under the same meth- 
od and discipline as the white children. 




Photograph by Turner 
AN INDIAN SCHOOL ON THE TAMA RESERVATION IX IOWA 

These schools are established by the government and the Indians are taught, in 
addition to the regular studies generally found in all schools, Domestic Science, Civil 
Engineering, and many other different trades and professions. 



The government is also protecting the Indians against un- 
scrupulous persons who would induce them to engage in 
games of chance, or spend their money for strong drink. 
Employment is furnished for both men and women as fast as 
they finish the schools and colleges. \Ye may now find the 
Indian in every vocation of life. There are today many suc- 
cessful lawyers, doctors, and men of letters who spent their 
earlier life in smoky reservation habitations. 

Many were the complaints set forth by writers regarding the 
"Allotment Acts." but Ave must remember that the transition 
period is always the critical time, and now that we have, par- 
tially at least, passed this period, we see nothing to hinder the 
progress of the North American Indian. 



PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 41) 

62. Mounds and Their Builders. 27 — In many parts of the 
United States, and especially in the Mississippi Valley, there 
are a great many artificial heaps or mounds, supposed by 
many to have been built by a pre-historic race. Modern au- 
thorities quite universally agree that the mound builders were 
the ancestors of the Indians. Many of the mounds, they be- 



^W: 







V yi 



AX ANCIENT INSCRIBED STONE OF THE NORTHMEN 

The latest acquisition to the large collection of material which tends to confirm the 
quite general belief, that the Northmen discovered the Western Continent, is a trap-rock, 
or rather a rune-stone, discovered by Mr. Olaf Ohman. about four miles northeast ot 
Kensington, Minnesota, where he and his son were engaged in "grubbing out" trees. 

The inscription, when translated, reads as follows: 

"Eight Goths (Swedes) and twenty-two Norwegians upon journey of discovery 
from Vinland (Nova Scotia) westward. We had camp by two rocks (in the water) 
one day's journey north from this stone. We were out fishintr one day. When we 
returned home we found ten men red with blood and dead. AVM (Ave Marie), save 
us from evil ! 

"(We) have ten men by the sea to look after our vessel forty-one I .' I days' journey 
from this island. Year 1362." 

For further information see article, "An Explorer's Stone Record Which Antedates 
Columbus," by H. R. Holland in Harper's Weekly, October 9. 1909. 

Lieve, are of quite recent origin and have been built since the 
discovery of America by Columbus. This conclusion has been 
reached by the study of the mounds themselves, by the relics, 
and by the bones and skeletons of the people buried in these 
mounds. It is now believed that there is a unity of races from 
pole to pole on the western continent. The difference exist- 
ing between the "Red Men," the Pueblo, the Aztec, the Maya 
of Yucatan, and the Peruvian of South America may be easily 
explained by taking into consideration the geographical posi- 
tion, temperature, climate, animals, and products of the soil 
by which each individual tribe was surrounded. 

Some old structures, such as the old tower of Newport, by 
many were supposed to be built by the descendants of the 

27 Old South Leaflet, no. 31; Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Val- 
ley, by E. G. Squier and E. H. Davis; Emblematic Mounds, by S. D. Peet ; 
Burial Mounds of the Northern Section of tin rnited States, by Cyrus 
Thomas; Thwaites 's The Colonies, eh. i, pp. 7-19. The Introduction to Park- 
man's Jesuits in America, and vol. i, pp. 1-45, of his Consjyiracy of Potitiac, 
will be interesting and helpful. 

i 



50 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Northmen, who claim to have discovered the western conti- 
nent in about the year one thousand. While the Northmen 
may have discovered this continent, yet they made no settle- 
ment, and at the time Columbus landed in the New World, they 
had even forgotten about their discovery. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION, 1607-1732 

63. The English Throne passes from the Tuclors to the 
Stuarts. 1 "" — When Quern Elizabeth died in 1603, the brilliant 
reign of the Tudors came to a close, and with the accession of 
James I (James VI of Scotland i, was ushered in the Stuart line. 
The former had been a family of great power in bringing Eng- 
land from the position of a nation with no commercial stand- 
ing, to the greatest seafaring nation the world then knew. 
James I was of a pedantic nature, and a confirmed coward. 
He withdrew from the Dutch alliance and signed a treaty of 
peace with Spain. The army and navy of England was re- 
duced in size, and the men who were disbanded were left with- 
out" employment. Sir Walter Raleigh fell in disrepute with 
the new king and was placed a prisoner in the great tower of 
London. With him passed the idea of colonization as an indi- 
vidual enterprise. Great stock companies were formed, on 
much the same basis of our companies of today. ( Jharters were 
granted by the king, permitting these companies to form and 
establish colonies in the New World. The period was well suited 
for the experiment, as the soldiers and sailors who were then 
out of employment were eager to undertake any task in which 
there was a chance of adventure and profit. 

64. Organization of the London and Plymouth Companies. — 
In 1606 Bartholomew Gosnold, an English navigator, made 
the discovery of a route which shortened the sailing distance 
between Europe and America nearly one-half. Instead of 
sailing to the West Indies and then to the American coast, as 
his predecessors had done, Gosnold sailed straight across the 
ocean, landing at Cape Cod. The importance of this route 
was at once brought to the attention of the thrifty merchants 
of England, who, with the permission of the king, organized 
the Virginia Company. According to this charter, t^e pro- 
moters were divided into two different companies; the one 
consisted of "certain Knights, Gentlemen. Merchants and ad- 



28 America's Story for America's Children, by Mara I.. Prat* - : Story of 
the Thirteen Colonies, by H. A. Guerber. 



52 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

venturers of the city of London," later known as the London 
Company, and the other consisted of "Sundry Knights, Gen- 
tlemen, Merchants and other adventurers of the cities of Bris- 
tol. Exeter and Plymouth," known in history as the Plymouth 
< Jompany. 

65. Grants under the Charter. 29 — [Plate No. 3.] Accord- 
ing to the charter, Virginia embraced all the Atlantic coast 
from Maine to the Spanish border in Florida, including all 
islands within one hundred miles of the shore, and extending 
one hundred miles inland. The Plymouth Company could, 
without opposition, plant colonies between Long Island and 
Nova Scotia, or, under certain conditions, from thirty-eight 
degrees to forty-five degrees. The London Company could, 
without opposition, plant colonies from Cape Fear to the Poto- 
mac or. under certain conditions, from thirty-four degrees to 
forty-one degrees. It will be noticed that the grants of the 
two companies over-lapped, as the Plymouth Company's grant 
began at thirty-eight degrees, while the London Company's 
grant extended to forty-one degrees. The strip of land be- 
tween thirty-eight degrees and forty-one degrees was classed 
as neutral territory, and was to belong to the colony which 
made the first settlement within its bounds, providing that no 
settlement was to be made within one hundred miles of a set- 
tlement already established. The charter further provided 
that the colonists and their children should remain English- 
men, and should have all the rights of the Englishmen living 
in the home country. 

A resident council of thirteen members, owing their ap- 
pointment to the king, and subject to removal by the king, 
was chosen for each company. This council was to make the 
laws for the colonists, but these laws were to be approved by 
a council in England appointed by the king. Later the king 
allowed the council in England to appoint the resident coun- 
cil. This resident council was to elect its own president, who 
was to be a member of its own number. It will be readily 
perceived that this new law was illy fitted for the new colony, 
as no rights whatever were placed in the hands of the col- 
onists. The welfare of the colony depended entirely upon the 
will and schemes of a foolish and nearly idiotic king, who be- 
lieved in the "divine right of kings," and that his people had 
no rights except those he chose to grant them. 

29 President Jefferson 's Notes on Virginia; Fiske's Old Virginia. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 53 

66. The Plymouth Colony on the Kennebec River. — The 
Plymouth Company was the first to attempt to make a settle- 
ment. In May, 1607, about one hundred persons sailed from 
England and settled near the mouth of the Kennebec River in 
Maine. During the winter many of them died: among this 
number was their leader, George Popham. Much of their 
food was also destroyed by fire, so with one accord they de- 
cided to return to England. 



VIRGINIA 




Jamestown the First English Settlement. — [Plates Nos. 

2 and 3.] On January 1, 
1607, three ships, under 
the auspices of the Lon- 
don Company, having on 
board one hundred and 
five colonists, consisting 
of knights, gentlemen, 
merchants and adventur- 
ers, sailed from England 
for the Virginia coast. 30 
Early in May, they enter- 
ed the Chesapeake Bay, 
and discovered a river 
which the colonists named 
James, in honor of their 
sovereign. Sailing up this 
river for about thirty 
miles, they discovered a 
small peninsula, on which 
they started the settle- 
ment of Jamestown. 
68. Character of the Colonists. — No laborers or tillers of 
the soil were present among these first colonists, so there was 
no thought of permanent homes, but rather all expected to 

so Kennedy's Swallow Burn; Fiske 's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, 
especially vol. i, chs. ii-iv and eh. viii, and vol. ii, chs. xiii and xv. The char- 
ters of the several colonies are given in full in Preston 's Documents Illustra- 
tive of American History, pp. 1, 32 and 62 ; Eggleston 's Beginners of a Na- 
tion, pp. 1-98; Higginson's Larger History of the United States, pp. 84-107; 
Thwaites's The Colonies, pp. 65-95; Fisher's Colonial Era, pp. 23-62; also chs. 
v and vi, entire; McLaughlin's History of the American Nation, pp. 28-66; 
Channing's Student's History of the United States, pp. 59-73, 119-122; Mary 
Johnston 's The Old Dominion and By Order of the Company, and Mary E. 
Wilkins's The Heart's Highway. 



J$BL 






j fjyfefe , .. '_-jz-- 



.#*•:■ 



V: 



RUINS OP THE OLD CHURCH AT JAMES- 
TOWN 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 55 

quickly hoard a vast fortune, and then to return to their na- 
tive country. It was the belief, in England, that gold, silver 
and precious stones were very plentiful in the new country. 
and all came with this absurd idea in view. 

Sir Thomas Gates sums up the characters of these first set- 
tlers in the following manner: "Cast up this reckoning" to- 
gether, want of government, store of idleness, their expecta- 
tions frustrated by the traitors, their markets spoiled by the 
mariners, our nets broken, the deer chased, our boats lost, our 
hogs killed, our trade with the Indians forbidden, some of our 
men fled, some murdered, and most . . . weakened, and 
endangered, famine and sickness by all these means in- 
creased." 

69. Captain John Smith. — John Smith is characterized, by 
many, as a bold braggart. While the 
tale of his life places him among the 
same class of personages as the princi- 
pal characters of Cooper's Leather 
Stocking Tales, or Scott's Tvanhoe, yel 
a research by modern historians proves 
beyond a doubt that he was a man of 
extraordinary ability, and at least an 
adventurer of the highest type. After 
various experiences in European coun- 

C\PT\TX TOHX SMITH 

(From the History of Virginia, tries, he was. at the bloody battle of 
by Captain John Smith) Rothenthurm. in 1602. taken prisoner, 
and sold at Constantinople as a slave. Prom there he was sent 
to the east, where he was placed under a very cruel master. 
However, one day he killed his master, and mounting a horse, 
he galloped far into the Scythian desert, and after many days 
of misery, arrived at a Russian fortress on the Don. He here 
met friends, and passing through Poland, Hungary, and Bo- 
hemia, he finally reached Leipsic where he met Prince Sigis- 
mund. From this gentleman he obtained a letter of safe con- 
duct, and during the next year traveled through Germany. 
Spain, and Morocco, and arrived in England just in time to 
take part in the enterprise of the London Company. Meeting 
with Captain Newport, he at once decided to sail for Virginia. 
By command of the king, the names of the men who were to 
compose the resident council of the new colony, were placed in 
a sealed envelope and given to Captain Newport, with orders 




56 STUDENTS 7 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

that the envelope was not to be opened until the ship had ar- 
rived in America. During the voyage. Smith's enemies ac- 
cused him of plotting a mutiny, and he was placed in irons 
until the ship reached Virginia. On arriving, the sealed en- 
velope was opened, and it was found that he had been appointed 
one of the councilors. However, his enemies were in the major- 
ity in the council, and it was not until nearly a month had 
passed, that he was allowed to take his seat. From this time 
on, Smith began to rise in the estimation of the colonists and 
when he became president of the council, the little group of 
colonists became hopeful. 

70. Captain John Smith and Pocahontas Save the Colony. — 
Captain Newport soon sailed for England, and in 1608 re- 
turned to Jamestown with a new contingent of colonists. As 
before mentioned, the colonists, instead of planting crops and 
building homes, spent their entire time looking for gold; so 
winter arrived and found them without either homes or food. 
Smith, who was now president, had already explored the rivers 
and bays of the surrounding country, and visited the different 
Indian tribes. 31 On one of these expeditions he was captured 
by one of the Algoncpiian tribes, known as the Powhatan In- 
dians. He immediately interested his captors with a compass 
and other trinkets which he had with him, and they finally al- 
lowed him to write letters to his friends at Jamestown. This 
excited their curiosity greatly, when they found he was able to 
communicate to his friends in this way, and they began to be- 
lieve him to be a man of superior qualities. He was taken from 
tribe to tribe until he came before the great chief, Powhatan, 
where he was condemned to death. Here he met the chief's 
daughter, Pocahontas, and tradition relates that through her 
his life "was saved. However this may be, it remains that Poca- 
hontas became the firm friend of the English, and through her 
influence John Smith was able to procure food to carry his 
colonists through the winter. 

Smith was now convinced that if the colony was to be pros- 
perous, some time must be given to agricultural pursuits, and 
in a letter to the London Company, he recommended they send 
"gardeners, husbandmen, blacksmiths, fishermen, diggers of 
roots and trees etc., as well as a goodly supply of the same class 
of colonists which already had been sent." 

71. Starving Time during the Winter of 1609-1610.— Had 

si Pocalwnias, by Eggleston. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATK >N 57 

the London Company followed John Smith's recommendation 
in regard to sending people who were used to work it would 
probably have saved the colony a great deal of trouble and 
suffering, but his suggestion was not followed. More colonists 
arrived, and they were of the same character as those who had 
preceded them. 

John Smith was able to control them for a period, but he 
accidentally received a very serious wound by an explosion of 
gunpowder, and was forced to return to England tor treat- 
ment. Idleness and lawlessness soon reigned supreme. The In- 
dians not only refused to furnish supplies, but they killed the 
settlers at every opportunity. On account of lack of food, im- 
proper shelter, and clothing, the colonists by spring were at the 
point of starvation, and only sixty of the five hundred were left 
alive. They then decided to abandon Jamestown, lint as they 
sailed dowm the river into the bay, they, luckily, met Lord Del- 
aware, the newly appointed governor, with more colonists and 
three vessels well stocked with supplies. They again returned 
to the little village that they had so recently forsaken, and 
Jamestown was re-established and the colony saved. 

72. The Charter of 1609. — Lord Delaware had brought with 
him a new charter from the king. By this charter much of the 
power formerly held by the king was vested in the council in 
England, and this in turn had been delegated to the governor. 
Also a change had been made in the boundaries of tin 1 com- 
pany's property. By the new charter, the bounds were made to 
extend two hundred miles along the coast each way from Old 
Point Comfort, and "up into the lands throughout from sea to 
sea, west and northwest." 

73. Sir Thomas Dale and Communism. — Although Governor 
Delaware was aristocratic in many of his views, yet he was a 
man with a great deal of good common sense, and his arrival 
marks the beginning of the real history in Virginia. He, how- 
ever, was soon taken ill and was succeeded by Sir Thomas Dale. 
Dale was also a man well suited for the place. Under his direc- 
tion the rule inaugurated by John Smith. "He who will not 
work, shall not eat," was rigidly enforced. Up to this time 
everything had been held in common in the Virginian colonies. 
All the grain was placed in a common granary; meat was 
placed in a common larder; in short, everything belonged to 
the company, and the colonists had no individual property 
whatever. Although this was an ideal system, yet it was illy 



58 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

adapted for the conditions which existed in the colony. As 
before stated, the people of the colony were unaccustomed to 
work; many of them were criminals and paupers, and the 
refuse of the large cities of England. To this class of indi- 
viduals, communism meant, "Put in as little as possible, and 
get out as much as you can." Dale immediately proceeded 
to place the colony on a more stable basis. Each person was 
given an allotment of land. From the crops taken from this 
land he was required to place in the company's storehouse 
two and one-half bushels of corn, annually. The rest of the 
crops harvested from the allotment was considered private 
property. Many of the idlers were driven out of the colony. 
Whipping posts, stocks, and prisons were established for of- 
fenders and criminals. 

Dale was also very careful to cultivate the friendship of 
the Indians. Pocahontas, the little Indian girl, who had al- 
ways been the firm friend of the English, had now grown to 
womanhood, professed the Christian faith, and had been bap- 
tized in the little church in Jamestown. John Rolfe, a young 
soldier of the colony, wished to make her his wife, and Pow- 
hatan, the great war chief, very gladly gave his consent to 
the marriage. By this marriage the friendship between the 
Algonquian Indians and the English of the Virginia colony 
was more firmly established. 

74. The Third Charter in 1612.— The third charter which 
was issued to the company, gave great powers to the stock- 
holders. Heretofore the affairs of the company 'had been ad- 
ministered by the king and the council in England. Under 
the third charter, the council in England was abolished and 
the power was transferred to the stockhoders of the company. 
These stockholders were to meet at least four times a year 
and take into consideration affairs relative to the colony. Al- 
though the individual colonists were affected but little, how- 
ever, this was a long step toward a democratic form of gov- 
ernment in Virginia. From this time, the colony made rapid 
progress. 

75. Tobacco Culture. — During the administration of Sir 
Thomas Dale the culture of tobacco was suppressed, in order 
that the settlers might plant the necessary food crops. How- 
ever, Sir "Walter Raleigh had taken some of the weed with 
him to England, and its use soon became a very fashionable 
fad. Tobacco often sold as high as ten to twelve dollars a 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 59 

pound, and it soon became apparent that the colonists of 
Virginia could well afford to plant their small farms in to- 
bacco, and with the sale of the product they could buy more 
necessities than they possibly could raise on their farms. By 
1617 a great deal of the farm land was given over to the 
culture of tobacco. Soon, even the public market places and 
the roadways were planted with the weed. The merchants 
received it in exchange for their merchandise; ministers of 
the gospel received it as their salary; rents were paid in to- 
bacco, and, in fact, tobacco became the medium of exchange 
in Virginia. From this time on, Virginia was a very pros- 
perous colony. 

76. The Disagreement of Stockholders. — About this time 
the stockholders brought forward two different plans for the 
government of the colony. One party still believed in the 
autocratic power of Lord Dale, while the other party desired 
to place some of the power with the colonists themselves. The 
contest became very bitter, and for some time it seemed as 
if no agreement could be reached. Finally the views of the 
latter party prevailed, and Samuel Argall was appointed dep- 
uty governor. His administration was very unpopular and in 
1619 he was removed. 

77. The Magna Charta of Virginia. — Although Argall 's 
reign was very unpopular, yet the liberal party still held the 
balance of power, and was able to put into operation what is 
known as the "Magna Charta of Virginia." Sir George 
Yeardley was the leader in this movement. Under the pro- 
visions of the Magna Charta. communism was totally abolished. 
and each colonist was given a larger allotment of land. 

78. The First Representative Assembly (July 30. 1619). 
Of far greater importance was a provision in the Magna Charta 
which provided for the establishment of the legislative as- 
sembly of Virginia. Governor Yeardley. who had succeeded 
Argall, met with his six councilors, and twenty-two burgesses, 
who had been elected by the people of Virginia to represnt 
the colony, on July 30. 1619, and organized the general as- 
sembly of Virginia. Laws were passed which provided for the 
punishment of drunkenness, idleness, and gambling. The gen- 
eral assembly also passed resolutions condemning vanity of 
dress, and for selling firearms to the Indians a penalty of death 
was attached. 

This was the beginning of the system of government under 



60 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

which we are now living. A speaker and sergeant were elected 
from their own number. The governor and councilors sat with 
their hats on, which was the signification of equality. The 
members of the burgesses sat in the rear of the house, while 
the governor and his councilors sat in front pews. 

79. Introduction of Slavery [1619]. — In the same year that 
the first representative assembly met in Virginia, another trans- 
action took pace which caused the nation in future time the 
sacrifice of the lives of several millions of its best citizens. This 
was the transaction which took place between the captain of 
a Dutch trading vessel and the planters of Jamestown. This 
captain brought to Jamestown a cargo of twenty negroes who 
were sold to the planters. This was the beginning of slavery 
in the territory which afterwards became the United States. 
Very few slaves were sold into the English colony at first, but 
as the tobacco industry grew, the planters of the south found 
it was profitable to get negro slaves to work in the tobacco 
field, and by 1700 one-fourth of the southern population were 
negroes. 

SO. Indentured Servants." 2 — At this period in the history 
of England, there were a great many poor people. There was 
at this time a law which allowed creditors of these poor people 
to throw them into prison, or to sell their time until their debts 
were paid. Also these poor people might sell their own time 
in order to get means to pay their passage across the ocean 
to the colony in Virginia. In this way, many vagabonds and 
criminals, as well as many poor people of good reputation were 
able to go to Virginia. When the ship arrived at the port, the 
captain would advertise these people for sale in order to get 
his pay for carrying them across the ocean. These people were 
known as the indentured servants, and many of them had to 
serve their master for years in order to pay this debt. From 
this class of individuals grew up what in later years was known 
as the "poor whites." or the "mountain whites" of the south. 
When their term of service had expired, these people were 
thrown upon the world with nothing but their indenture to sell 
again; so many of them became absolute slaves, and were the 
progenitors of the despised class of people known as the "poor 
white trash" of the south. However, some of the indentured 
servants, who were progressive, became land owners, and later 
were quite influential in the affairs of the south. 

32 Prisoner* of Hope, and To TTarc and to Hold, by Mary Johnston. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 61 

81. A Shipload of Maidens Arrive [1619]. — One other 
event makes the year 1619 memorable in the history of the 
Virginia colony. Up to this time, there were but very few 
women in the colony, and Sir Edwin Sandys well understood 
that without homes and family, the people who made up the 
colony would soon retrograde into semi-barbaric life. There- 
fore the London Company made arrangements to transport 
fifty young women to the colony to become wives of the 
planters. On arriving in the colony these maidens found 
plenty of suitors, and were left entirely free to exercise their 
own judgment and will, as to their choice. However, any 
man who was lucky enough to have the privilege of being ac- 
cepted with favor by one of these maidens, must, before he 
could claim her. pay to the company one hundred and twenty 
pounds of the best leaf tobacco. 

Other women came from time to time; permanent homes were 
built ; flocks and herds were soon to be found on all the farms, 
and with the merry prattle of children, the Virginia colony was 
on the sure road to success. 

82. Indian Uprisings in Virginia [1622-1644]. — On account 
of the good judgment which John Smith used in making 
friends with the Indians, and on account Of the continued 
friendship of Powhatan, and his daughter, Pocahontas, toward 
the little colony, Virginia had been very fortunate, in the 
early part of her history, in not having any serious trouble 
with the Indians. However, in 1622. the Indian tribes became 
restless. John Smith, Powhatan, and Pocahontas had long 
since died, and the Indians, who had been quite peaceful for 
so many years, now planned a general massacre of the entire 
colony. Under their chief, Opechancanough, a brother of Pow- 
hatan, they suddenly fell upon the unsuspecting settlers and 
massacred about three hundred men. women, and children. An 
Indian had notified a friend in Jamestown of the approaching 
calamity, and so the town was prepared for the attack and 
was saved. The colonists at once attacked the Indians, wasted 
their crops, and destroyed their homes. Peace was again re- 
stored, and for over twenty years the colonists were not 
bothered. Then came another massacre. This time, however, 
the Indians were punished so thoroughly that there was never 
another general uprising of Indians in the colony. 

83. The Charter Revoked. — The London Company soon 
found that the liberties it had given the colony in Virginia 



62 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

proved a blessing to both the colony and the company. There- 
fore, in 1622 it again enlarged the rights and privileges which 
had been established by Yeardley in 1619. This aroused the 
animosity of the king against the company, for the company 
not only granted free government to their colony in Virginia, 
but very strongly opposed his tyrannical rule at home. The 
king, therefore, decided to revoke the charter, and taking ad- 
vantage of the Indian massacre as a plea of mismanagement 
by the company, proceeded at once to put his plans into opera- 
tion. The controversy went to the courts of England, where 
the judges, being under the control of their king, decided 
against the stockholders. So on June 16, 1624, the charter 
was revoked. From this time on the king appointed the gov- 
ernors, who, in conjunction with the house of burgesses, ruled 
the colony. During the time the London Company had control 
of the colony, they had sent to the colony over fifteen thou- 
sand emigrants; had spent nearly sixteen thousand dollars of 
their private funds; had built for England a firm barrier 
against the Spanish nation, and had laid the foundation of one 
of England's greatest colonial empires. 

84. Sir William Berkeley. — King James died in 1625, and 
his son, Charles I, who ascended the throne, being of the same 
temperament as his father, was soon in a quarrel, not only 
with the colony in Virginia but with his own subjects at home. 
In 1644 he appointed Sir William Berkeley as governor of the 
colony. The Puritan element, which had become very strong 
in England, was also gaining strength in the southern counties 
of Virginia. Berkeley proceeded at once to suppress all Pur- 
itanic sentiment in the colony. He was very zealous in the 
cause of his king, but nevertheless, the people of A^irginia were 
slow to give up the privileges which previously had been 
granted them. 

In 1649. Charles I was executed, and Oliver Cromwell ruled 
in his place. Cromwell removed Berkeley in 1651, but in 
1660, when Charles II ascended the throne, Berkeley was again 
reinstated by the Virginian assembly. Berkeley began his 
work in the same tyrannical style which had caused him so 
much trouble when he had first been appointed governor by 
James I. He levied exorbitant taxes. The Church of Eng- 
land was the established faith, and dissenters were severely 
punished ; the right of suffrage was restricted to land owners 
and housekeepers ; the navigation laws were enforced so that 
the colonists were forced to ship all their tobacco to England. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 63 

Finally discontent became general, and when the king, in 1673. 
made a present of the entire colony of Virginia to two of, his 
court favorites, Lord Arlington and Culpeper, this discontent 
increased to the point of insurrection. 

85. Bacon's Rebellion. 33 — Only two things were now needed 
to start a civil war in Virginia. The first was an immediate 
cause or excuse, and the second was a popular leader. The 
first element presented itself in the Indian disturbance of 1675 
and the second element presented itself in the form of a gentle- 
man by the name of Nathaniel Bacon, who possessed those 
qualities of leadership and resolution which led him to demand 
and fight for the principles of protection and recognition which 
he knew belonged to the citizenship of the English colony. 

The Indians for several years had been committing depreda- 
tions along the border. Bacon asked Berkeley to give him a 
commission so that he might raise a company of troops and go 
and fight the Indians. Being engaged in the fur business, 
Berkeley did not wish to antagonize the Indians, so he refused 
to issue the commission. Bacon immediately raised a com- 
pany and proceeded to punish the Indians. He now became 
very popular and was elected to the house of burgesses. Still 
the Indians were troublesome, and on this account Berkeley 
was forced to issue a commission to Bacon, who proceeded to 
raise another company and started to put down the Indian 
uprising. He had not been gone long before Berkeley publicly 
proclaimed him a rebel, and raised a company to go in pursuit 
and capture him. Bacon, hearing of this, turned about to meet 
the governor, and drove him back into Jamestown. Soon the 
men who formed Berkeley's company became frightened and 
discouraged and began to disband, so that he had but a rem- 
nant of a company left. Bacon then proceeded to capture and 
burn the entire city. He was now taken ill of a fever and 
died. No one could be found to take his place as leader, and 
Berkeley took a terrible revenge. He put to death over twenty 
of the followers of Bacon in the course of a few weeks. Others 
were thrown into prison and their property confiscated. So 
unreasonable was he that even Charles II recalled him and 
would not even admit of his presence at court, and it is re- 
corded that he remarked, '"That old fool (Berkeley) has put 
to death in that naked country more people than I did here 
for the death of my father." 



3 3 White Aprons, by Mrs. Goodwin. 



MASSACHUSETTS, 1620 

86. Religious Controversies. 34 — As mentioned under section 
iifty-one, it will be remembered that England was fast turning 
from the Catholic to the Protestant faith. At this time there 
were four religious factions which were not only strong in 
their different church beliefs, but had gathered such strength 
that they had begun to exert a great deal of influence in mat- 
ters of state. These different factions were known as the Ro- 
man Catholics, the Church of England, the Puritans, and the 
Separatists. The Catholics, of course, believed the pope to be 
the head of the church. The members of the Church of Eng- 
land recognized the king as the head of the church. The Pur- 
itans, who were also Protestant, believed that the ritualistic 
part of the church should be simplified and that the church as 
a whole should be made purer; the Separatists, who were very 
bitterly opposed to the king, went so far that they did away 
with all forms of the English church service, entirely. Often- 
times they simply met at their different churches, where they 
sat cpiietly to think and pray. Both Puritans and Separatists 
believed that religious liberty and civil liberty were insep- 
arable. They, therefore, believed and worked for the suprem- 
acy of parliament against the absolutism of the king. 

87. The Separatists Emigrate to Holland. — On account of 
the severe persecution which was continually heaped on the 
Separatists, they finally came to the conclusion that it would 
be best, if possible, for them to leave England. In the same 
year that Jamestown was settled, the leaders of these people 
began to look for a place where they might settle and worship 
as they believed, without being subject to so much persecution. 
It will be remembered that Holland had thrown off the Spanish 
yoke [Section 42], and had proclaimed religious liberty. Con- 
sequently these Separatists concluded that here they might 
live, and so in the spring of 1609. they moved to Leyden. Great 

34 John Lothrop Motley's Merrymount ; Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter; Coop 
or 's The Wept of Wish-ion-wish; J. G. Holland's The Bay Path; and Mrs. 
Jane G. Austen's Standish of Stand'.sh. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 



65 



numbers settled in the colony at this place and many of their 
prominent men attained influence in the intellectual, as well as" 
the religious life of the community. Here they lived a pleas- 
ant and peaceful life, not oppressed by any government and 
fearing no man. Holland was also proud of having the repu- 
tation of furnishing a haven for these oppressed people. How- 
ever, after the Separatists had been here for about ten years, 
they became aware of the fact that their children were form- 




THE DEPARTURE OF THE PILGRIM FATHERS FROM DELFT HAVEN IX 1620 
A fresco by Charles W. Cope, in the House of Parliament. London 



ing the habits and manners of the Dutch people. Although 
these people were not in harmony with the English king, yet 
they did not wish their children to forget the English language 
and manners. Furthermore, the truce between Spain and her 
provinces [Section 42] was near at an end, and these people 

5 



66 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

did not wish to be entangled in the fortunes of war in which 
Holland might be plunged. 

88. They Decide to Found a Colony. — After a great deal of 
discussion, a considerable majority of the colony decided to 
cast their fortunes in the New World, providing they could get 
a suitable charter from the king. They secured from the Lon- 
don Company a tract of land near the Delaware Bay, and they 
asked the king to grant them religious liberty in America, 
confirmed by a charter. This the king would not do. How- 
ever, he promised not to molest them in their new home. Be- 
ing too poor to hire vessels to carry them and their goods 
across the ocean, they were forced to borrow money from Eng- 
lish speculators, promising to give in payment, half of their 
earnings of the first seven years. Leaving the majority of 
their friends at Leyden, they at once embarked on the Speed- 
well from Delft Haven and sailed for Southampton, where they 
were joined by the Mayflower. From Southampton the two 
vessels went to Plymouth, from which place they started for 
the New World. Soon after it was found that the Speedwell 
was unseaworthy, and so they were forced to return to Ply- 
mouth for repairs. Finally the Pilgrims decided to abandon 
the Speedwell, and the Mayflower, with one hundred and two 
of the Separatists on board, sailed for their new home. After a 
voyage of sixty-three days, the Mayflower, driven out of its 
course by a storm, sailed into Cape Cod Bay. [Plate No. 3.] 
On account of their wanderings the Separatists now became 
known as the Pilgrims. 

89. The Mayflower Compact.— The little party of Pil- 
grims. 35 while still on board the Mayflower, thought best to 
enter into some agreement or compact by which they should 
be ruled. Governor Winthrop, in his History of Massachu- 
setts, makes mention of this affair in the following manner: 

"This day, before we came to harbor, observing some not 
well affected to unity and concord ... it was thought good 
there should be an association and agreement ... to submit 
to such government and governors as we should by common 
consent agree to make and choose. . ." Tbe compact, in sub- 
stance, is as follows: "In ye name of God, Amen. We, . . . 
the loyall subjects of our dread Soveraigne Lord King James 
. . . in ye presence of God, and one another, covenant & 
combine ourselves together into a civill body politick; for our 

35 Tin Mayflow( r, by Mrs. Stowe; -I Nameless "Nobleman, by Mrs. Austen. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 67 

better ordering 1 , and preservation & furtherance of ye ends 
aforesaid ; and by virtue hearof to enact, constitute and frame 
such just & equall lawes .... as shall be thought most 
meete & convenient for ye general good of ye colonie; unto 
which we promise all due submission and obedience. In wit- 
ness whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at 
Cape Codd ye 11 of November .... Anno Dom., 1620." 

They all signed this compact and then proceeded to elect 
John Carver as governor for one year. 

90. Plymouth Rock. — Being quite late in the season — No- 
vember 9th — a party was at once sent out to explore the coast 
and the vicinity, for a suitable place to land and build their 
homes. They continued their exploration until December 21st. 
when they chose a place since known as Plymouth. [Plate 
No. 3.] When landing they stepped from the boats on a 
rock (Plymouth Rock), since known as the "Stepping Stone 
of New England," as it was the landing place of the Pil- 
grims. Tradition relates that John Alden and a Pilgrim 
maiden by the name of Mary Clinton, were the first to step 
from the boats upon this rock. 

91. Hard Times. — As soon as the Pilgrims landed at Ply- 
mouth, they began building log cabins into which they miyiit 
move their families and store their goods and provisions. How- 
ever, the weather was very cold and darn]), and it was not 
long until many were sick. It is probable that all would have 
died, had it not been that a short time before this, a terrible 
pestilence had caused the death of the Indians who had in- 
habited this vicinity. The Pilgrims accidentally came across 
great quantities of corn which had been buried by these In- 
dians, and so providentially they were saved from starvation, 
as well as from the Indian attacks. The winter was long and 
severe, and before the coming of spring about forty of the 
little band were laid in their graves. Governor John Carver 
being one of the number. However, in the spring, when the 
Mayflower sailed for England, not one of the survivors re- 
turned with her. 

92. William Bradford becomes Governor. — Governor Car- 
ver was succeeded by Governor William Bradford, who was 
elected annually for thirteen years, and with the exception of 
five years, he served in this same capacity until his death in 
1687. During his reign he wrote his History of Plymouth 
Plantations, and to this book we are indebted for a great deal of 



68 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

our knowledge concerning many of the important events and 
facts concerning the colonization of the New England colonies. 

93. Miles Standish and the Indians. 3 " — As stated above, a 
pestilence had visited the section of the country where the 
Pilgrims landed, and during the early spring the people were 
surprised to see an Indian approaching them, crying in the 
English language, "Welcome, Englishmen." This Indian's 
name w T as Samoset. In a few days he returned again with 
Squanto, an Indian who was well acquainted with the English 
Language. Squanto afterwards became the firm friend of the 
colonists, and with his aid, the Pilgrims were able to make a 
treaty with his chief. Massasoit, who was chief of the Wam- 
panoag tribe. This treaty was faithfully kept by both the 
Pilgrims and the Indians for over fifty years. Squanto also 
taught the Pilgrim Fathers how to plant and cultivate the 
Indian corn, how to catch fish, and many other useful things. 
The Narragansett Indians Avere a very powerful tribe, and 
were the enemies of the Wampanoag Indians. Their chief, 
Canonicus, at one time sent to Governor Bradford a snake 
skin filled with arrows. Squanto informed Governor Brad- 
ford that this was a declaration of war. The governor im- 
mediately refilled the snake's skin with shot and powder and 
returned it to the great war chief. Finding out that the Pil- 
grims were not afraid, Canonicus came to the conclusion that 
it would be better to make peace, as he very much feared 
Captain Standish and his little army. 

( >4. The Puritans Establish a Colony at Salem. — [Plate 3.] 
Up to this time the Plymouth Company had established 
no colonies in the New World. However, in 1620, the com- 
pany, which had been re-organized, and was now known as the 
council for New England, received a charter for the vast ter- 
ritory between the fortieth and forty-eighth degrees of lat- 
itude. The company now made several grants, one of which 
was to John Endicott. who, with about sixty of his associates, 
settled at Salem in 1628. Endicott was soon joined by several 
other Puritans, but the real emigration did not begin until 
about two years later. The king of England was becoming 
more unjust in Ids treatment of all persons who w T ere not in 
accordance with the established Church of England. He even 
levied burdensome taxes and discriminated in every way pos- 

3e Courtship of Miles Standish, by Longfellow; Scarlet Letter and Twice 
Told Talcs, by Hawthorne; Standish of Standish, by Jane Austen. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 69 

sible against these people, and this caused many to seek a 
home in the New World. 

95. Massachusetts Charter [1629].— [Plate No. 3.] The 
Puritans, although anxious to leave England, were not entirely 
satisfied with the grant from the council of New England, so 
sought a charter from the king, and were greatly pleased 
when they found that he was willing to grant them a very 
liberal charter. The charter included all the territory between 
a point three miles north of the Merrimac River and a point 
three miles south of the Charles River, and westward to the 
Pacific Ocean. It further granted that the government should 
be vested in a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen asso- 
ciates who were to be chosen each year from ihe stockhold- 
ers. None but the church members could vote, and this caused 
genera] dissatisfaction among the people. They finally de- 
manded an assembly similar to the house of burgesses in Vir- 
ginia [Section 78]. This was granted and the assembly was 
known as the general court, and met with the governor and 
his eighteen associates as one body. This arrangement did not 
prove satisfactory, and soon the assembly, and the governor 
and his eighteen associates, met as two distinct and separate 
bodies. 

96. The Puritan Exodus.— | Phi fe No. 3.1 The Puritans 
now came in large numbers to the new 
colony, and instead of being people who 
were poor and uneducated, they were ex- 
actly the opposite. Many of them were 
rich and respected merchants and accus- 
tomed to success. The leader of these 
people was John Winthrop, and instead 
of hiring one or two vessels, as did the 
Pilgrims, Winthrop and his company 
chartered thirteen of the best merchant- 
men then afloat. Every preparation was 

governor winthrop made which should make this ven ture a 

(From a painting in the x , „ , ,. ,, , 

state House at Boston, success. Instead of landing on the Short- 
attributed to Vandyke). ^ (1 . )y jn fh( . yQa ^ ^ dk} th(? Pil o T ims. 

Winthrop and his followers arrived in Salem harbor on the 
longest day in the year, when flowers and fruit were plentiful. 
They were most cordially received by Endieott. and after a 
short time selected a place to settle known as Dorchester. — 
now a part of the corporation of Boston. Part of the colonists 




70 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




settled at Salem, and strengthened the settlement here; others 
settled near by, at Watertown and Charleston; still others 
made a settlement at Shawmut, another part of Boston, where 
they found a clear and cool stream of water. It is estimated 
that by 1640 over twenty thousand Puritans had emigrated 
Prom England to the new colony. 

97. Roger Williams. — The Pilgrims and the Puritans left 
England with the idea of establishing 
in the New World a great Puritan com- 
monwealth, where they might worship 
according to the dictates of their own 
conscience. The idea of religious tol- 
eration probably never entered their 
minds; at least their laws were very 
strict, and they persecuted all people 
who had different religious views, in 
as serious a manner as King Charles 
did the dissenters in England. In the 
colony, however, there were people of 
very liberal views. Roger Williams 
was one of these people. He came to 
Plymouth in 1631, and about two years 

later, on account of a disagreement with his neighbors, he 
moved to Salem. He was a very able preacher, and soon a 
spirit of restlessness began to show itself on account of his 
liberal views. He proclaimed that the church and state should 
be entirely separate, and the king having never been in pos- 
session of the land in the New World, therefore could not dis- 
pose of it. He contended that the people should buy the land 
of the Indians instead of the king. Soon the people began to 
take sides, and Roger Williams was called before the general 
court. This court decided to send him back to England, but 
Williams made his escape into the wilderness, and during the 
winter lived with the Indians [Section 117. | We will later 
see how he became the founder of Rhode Island, which was 
one of the most tolerant and democratic of the new colonies. 

98. Anne Hutchinson. — In 1634 another disturber, known 
as .Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, arrived and soon opened what we 
would call religious conferences. In these conferences were 
discussed such questions as the following: First, whether 
sanctification preceded justification. Second, whether the 
person of the Holy Ghost dwells with a justified person; and, 



ROGER WILLIAMS 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 71 

Third, how far a devout Christian receives from God immedi- 
ate revelations of his will. It may be said that these questions 
were not proposed by herself, but by the people who finally 
became her accusers, and it is fair to say that none of these 
people probably understood either of these questions fully. 
Mrs. Hutchinson was the daughter of a Puritan minister,— 
Marbury, — and it is probable she would never have settled in 
this country, had it not been that she wished to be with her 
pastor. Rev. John Cotton, who decided to make his home in 
the colony. Mrs. Hutchinson, furthermore, objected to the 
Puritan habit of holding meetings to which the women were 
not admitted. Soon complaints were made to the general 
court, and it was decided to hold her trial at Cambridge in- 
stead of Boston, as in Boston she would be surrounded by her 
friends. They charged her with disturbing the peace. She 
was finally declared to be a dangerous person and was ban- 
ished from the colony. She moved to what is now known as 
the City of New Port [Section 117 and Plate No. 3], and Later 
moved again to Connecticut, where she and her children were 
massacred by the Indians. 

99. Persecution of the Quakers. 37 — About this same time a 
religious sect of people called Quakers began to settle in Mas- 
sachusetts. They at once began to preach and spread their 
doctrine throughout the colony, and when they were admon- 
ished by the general court to stop, they refused to do so. They 
were therefore whipped, tortured, sent to prison, and a few 
were hanged, but they were true to their religion and gloried 
in being martyrs in a good cause. Instead of these punish- 
ments keeping them away from the colony, they seemed to 
prove an attraction. More stringent laws were passed. Any 
Quaker entering the colony was liable to have his ears cut off. 
If he entered a second time, holes were burned through his 
tongue with hot irons. The government finally inflicted the 
death penalty on all who should return the second time. Sev- 
eral returned and w r ere hanged. However, the Quakers re- 
mained firm, and after 1660 the law r s were not so severe, and 
religious persecution ceased to a great extent. 

100. King Philip's War. — During the life of Massasoit, the 
Puritans had no serious trouble with the Indians. At his death, 
his son, Alexander, became chief. Alexander was of the opinion 
that although his father, Massasoit, had sold the land to the 

37 New England Tragedies, by Longfellow. 



72 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



, . 




KING PHILIP 



whites, still the Indians could hunt and fish on the land as they 
previously had done. The colonists objected to this, and soon 

there was a misunderstanding be- 
tween them. On account of the 
difference of opinions, Alexander 
became the enemy of the whites, 
and soon had formed a secret alli- 
ance with the Narragansett Indians 
to kill all the colonists. The gov- 
ernor at Plymouth, hearing of this, 
promptly brought Alexander by 
force to Plymouth. Here he was 
taken ill of a fever and died. 

His brother, Philip, was now 
proclaimed chief. He believed 
that the English had poisoned 
Alexander, and began to plot 
revenge. He organized a confederacy of all the New England 
Indians to exterminate the whites. Hostilities began in June, 
1675, in the town of Swansea. The people were coming home 
from church when they were attacked. Nearly all were 
killed. Soon the attack became general. Many of the isolated 
communities were entirely destroyed: men, women and child- 
ren were carried into captivity ; some were killed ; some were 
sold into other tribes ; some were tortured, and many were 
never heard from. Finally the wife and son of King Philip 
were captured and sold into the West Indies as slaves. Philip 
now gave up all hope, and roamed from one place to another. 
He was finally shot by a faithless Indian. 

During the war, the colonists lost a great many cattle; many 
houses were burned, and many people killed. However, the 
Indians were so severely punished that they remained quiet 
for a long time. 

101. John Eliot, "The Apostle to the Indians." — Previous 
to King Philip's war, John Eliot had established among the 
different tribes of Indians many schools and churches. He 
also had translated the entire Bible into their language, and 
several thousand were converted to the Christian faith by his 
preaching. It is estimated that in 1674, there were over four 
thousand praying Indians in New England. Many of these 
Indians could read and write. However, when the war broke 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 73 

out, the Indians seemed to lose their religious zeal, and all 
joined King Philip in the war against the colonists. 

102. Salem Witchcraft [1629] . 3S — About the same time 
King Philip and his Indians were committing their outrages in 
the New England settlements, a delusion known as the Salem 
witchcraft became prevalent. It was not confined to the New 
England colonies alone, as is supposed by many people, but in- 
stead it existed throughout the world. It was thought that 
human beings might become witches, and by forming a com- 
pact with Satan, these people could become transparent, and 
change themselves into weird forms and shapes, and riy wher- 
ever they wished on the wings of the wind. It was believed 
that they could torture their enemies by biting, pinching, and 
other numerous ways while in this transparent state. Eliza- 
beth Parris. with several other girls and young women between 
the ages of ten and twenty, claimed that they had been be- 
witched. They accused Tituba, a Negro-Indian slave belong- 
ing to Mr. Parris. The excitement became intense: llie whole 
country was in a ferment. Phipps, the new governor, at once 
called a commission of seven magistrates to investigate the 
case. Under the new charter he had no right to do this, hut 
the community was so excited that no one would issue a pro- 
test. Things went from bad to worse, until about twenty men, 
women and children had been executed. Giles Corey, an old 
man of eighty years of age, was pressed to death because he 
refused to answer the question put to him of "guilty or not 
guilty." Finally Mrs. Hale, the minister's wife, and Mrs. 
Phipps, the governor's wife, were accused of being witches. 
The tide now turned, and the people saw their error, and at 
once the persecution ceased. Mr. Whittier, in 3iis poem, de- 
scribes how Judge Sewall arose in his pew at church every 
year and asked the forgiveness of the people, for the part he 
had taken in committing to death so many innocent people. 

103. Sir Edmund Andros and the Massachusetts Charter. — 
During the first thirty years of the Pilgrims' life in the colony, 
they were not troubled in any way by the king nor the courts 
of England. Consequently they had built up a community 
which was nearly independent of the laws of England. Eng- 
land was interested in other things to such an extent that it 
did not have time to devote any attention to its colony. About 

ss New England Tragedies, by Longfellow; A Maid of Salem Toivne, by 
Lnev F. Madison. 



74 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

1676, Sir Edmund Randolph was dispatched by the king to in- 
quire into the affairs in Massachusetts Colony. His reports 
were very unfavorable to the colony, and after ten years the 
charter was taken away, and Andros was appointed governor 
in chief over Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecti- 
cut, Rhode Island and Plymouth. Andros at once established 
the Episcopal form of worship in the colony. He also became 
involved in difficulties with the Indians of the northwest, and it 
was thought that he was in league with the French colonists, and 
that he was aiming to turn New England over to them. In 1688 
a great revolution broke out in England, and James II was forced 
to abdicate. As soon as the news reached Boston, the colonists 
arose and placed Andros under arrest, and the colonial govern- 
ment was re-established under the old charter. 

Through the efforts of Increase Mather, who was at this time 
in England, a new charter was obtained in 1691, uniting Massa- 
chusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony, and Maine, under the 
name of Massachusetts. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE 

104. Gorges and Mason. — [Plate No. 3.] Soon after the 
founding of Plymouth, Sir Ferdinand Gorges obtained a grant 
of land extending from the Merrimac to the Kennebec River. 
Settlements were begun at Portsmouth and Dover. 

In 1623 he was joined by Captain John Mason, and soon 
after, the tract of land was enlarged so as to comprise roughly 
what is now known as Maine and New Hampshire. 

105. Division of Territory. — On account of a dispute re- 
garding the boundary line, Mason and Gorges decided to di- 
vide their grants. Gorges took the country to the east of the 
Piscataqua and Mason the country between the Piscataqua 
and the Merrimac. 

106. Colonists and Government of New Hampshire. — The 
settlements in New Hampshire were made, to a great extent. 
by the people from other colonies (especially Massachusetts), 
and in 1641, the settlements being few and small were, for pro- 
tection, joined to Massachusetts. This scheme did not please 
the king and in 1679 he made New Hampshire a royal pro- 
vince. In 1688. however, she was again joined to Massachu- 
setts, but in 1691 she again became a royal province and so 
continued until the Revolution. 

107. Settlements in Maine. — By referring to section sixty- 
six we will see that Sir George Popham attempted to establish 
a colony at the mouth of the Kennebec in 1607. Later, in 1625. 
a settlement was made at Pamaquid Point. Other settlements 
were later established by Gorges, at Saco and Biddeford. 

108. Maine United with Massachusetts. — Gorges, who lived 
in England, paid very little attention to his colony and it grew 
in population and importance slowly. A dispute finally arose 
over the boundary line between Maine and Massachusetts, and 
in order to settle the trouble. Massachusetts paid to the heirs 
of Gorges twelve hundred and fifty pounds sterling. There- 
after Maine remained a part of Massachusetts until after the 
Revolution. 

109. Character of People Who Settled Maine. — Josselyn, 



76 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

in Hart, I, 430, gives us a description of the settlers of Maine 
in the following language : 

The people . . . may be divided into magistrates, hus- 
bandmen or planters, and fishermen. . . 

The planters have a custom of taking tobacco, sleeping at 
noon, sitting long at meals, sometimes four times a day, and 
now and then drinking a dram of the bottle extraordinarily. . . 

If a man . . . came where they were roystering and 
gulling in wine with a dear felicity, he must be sociable and 
roly-poly with, taking off their liberal cups as freely, or else 
begone which is best for him. 



CONNECTICUT 

110. Fishermen on the Connecticut River. — In 1630. the 
same year that Boston was founded, some fishermen entered 
the Connecticut River and were very favorably impressed with 
the country through which the river flowed. This report prob- 
ably caused Lords Say and Brooke to ask the king for a grant 
of land at this place. This he gladly gave to them, although 
the Dutch had already established a trading post near the pres- 
ent site of Hartford. Soon (1663) a party of fur traders, from 
Plymouth, had established another trading post at a place 
which they called Windsor. [Plate Xo. 3.] 

111. Exodus from Massachusetts. — .Many people of Massa- 
chusetts were dissatisfied with the home government, and this, 
combined with the intolerance in religious affairs, had much 
to do with the removal of many people from Massachusetts to 
Connecticut. In 1635, John Winthrop, Jr.. son of the Governor 
of Massachusetts, with a company of followers, reduced the 
Dutch fortifications and built a fort at the mouth of the river. 
TTc also established a settlement [Section 120] which he named 
in honor of his patrons, Saybrook. In the spring of 1636 a 
party of about one hundred men. women, and children, made 
their way through the forest, accompanied by their pastor, the 
Rev. Thomas Hooker. They founded Hartford, and among 
other things, it was tacitly understood that a man need not be 
a church member in order to vote. 

112. Pequot War, :;! ' 1636. — The people who settled in the 
Connecticut Valley soon incurred the displeasure of the Pequot 
Indians, whose hunting grounds they were turning into farms 
and towns. A conspiracy was planned by the Indians against 
all the settlements in the Connecticut Valley. They kept up a 
desultory war. killing many defenseless men. women, and child- 
ren, especially in the settlement of Wetherfield. 

3» T//r Story of Massachusetts, by E. E. Hale: The Regicides, by Cogs 
well; Beginnings of New England, by Fiske. For contemporary accounts 
of the events and conditions of this period, see Old South Leaflets, nos. 6, 
7. 8, 23, 24, 25, 49-55, 60-64, 77, 87, 1]0 and 121; Also Hart 'a Source Bool; 
nos. 14. 15, 17, 19. 20 and 21. 



78 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Narragansetts, through the influence of Roger Williams, 
not onl}' refused to join the Pequots, but aided Captain John 
Mason who, in 1637, completely surprised the Pequots, and so 
nearly destroyed the tribe that it was never again re-organized. 

The Pequot war taught the colonists the fact that in union 
there is strength. Soon the different colonies began to plan 
with this end in view. 

113. First Written Constitution. — In 1639, about the same 
time that Anne Hutchinson was banished from Massachusetts, 
representatives from the three towns, Windsor, Hartford, and 
Wetherfielcl, met at Hartford and drew up a written constitu- 
tion by which they agreed to be governed. This constitution 
is known as the "Fundamental Orders of Connecticut." In this 
constitution, the ideas of Thos. Hooker regarding suffrage and 
religious toleration were made prominent. The assembly was 
made up from representatives from each township and, provision 
whs made for the establishment of a free school system. This was 
the first time in the history of the world that a state was created, 
with a written constitution as its foundation. 

114. Connecticut Receives a Charter in 1662. — On the re- 
storation of Charles II. Connecticut was the first of the colonies 
to acknowledge their sovereign. This may. or may not, have 
been accidental. The fact, however, remains that in April, 
1662, the king granted to Connecticut a very liberal charter. 
According to this charter New Haven was deprived of her 
separate existence and attached to Connecticut. 

115. The Royal Governor and the Charter Oak, 40 1687.— 
In 1685 King Charles died and his brother, James II, ascended 
the throne. This king at once decided to abolish all forms of 
local government in America, and unite the colonies under a 
single administration. He therefore dispatched Sir Edmund 
Andros to New England as governor, and authorized him to 
seize the Connecticut charter. Tradition relates that Andros 
and the colonists argued until it became necessary to light the 
candles. It soon became apparent that Andros would seize the 
charter. Suddenly the candles were blown out. There were 
no matches in those days and it was some time before the can- 
dles could lie relighted. Taking advantage of the darkness. 
Captain Wadsworth seized the charter, and is said to have hid 

*o Romance "/' tht Charter Oak, by Denton; Thwaites's The Colonies, pp. 
113-153; Eggleston's The Beginners' of a Nation, pp. 98-220; McLaughlin's 
History of the American Nation, pp. 67-90. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 79 

it in a hollow tree, since known as the ' ' Charter Oak. ' ' When 
Andros found he could not obtain the charter, he took the rec- 
ord hooks of the colony, wrote '"Finis*' (The End) at the bottom 
of the page and Connecticut was obliged to submit to his 
rule. 

Andros was a despotic ruler in every sense of the word. 
During his rule heavy taxes were imposed; a censor was ap- 
pointed for the press, and nothing was allowed to be printed 
without his permission. The general court was abolished. 

Not only the colonists, but England also now realized the 
fact that she could no longer endure the tyranny of James II, 
and soon he was forced to flee across the English Channel. 
AVilliam and Mary ascended the throne, and when the colonists 
were informed of this fact they at once arrested the tyrannical 
Andros, brought out their charter from its hiding place, and 
quietly went back under the old form of government. 

The decrees which annulled the charters of both Rhode Isl- 
and and Connecticut had never been formally enrolled, so 
the king and queen allowed the old charters to remain in force 
and these colonies were both governed by these charters until 
long after the Revolutionary War. [Sec. 233.] 

116 The ''Blue Laws." "—The laws of Connecticut, like 
those of the other New England colonies, were very severe, 
though often-times not as severe as similar laws in England. 
The so-called " Blue Laws " which are attributed to Con- 
necticut, probably never existed. They were very likely the 
exaggerations of Rev. Samuel Peters, who became very un- 
popular in New England, being forced, in fact, to return to 
his home in London. This gentleman, after his return to 
England, issued several written contributions, which for many 
years led the people to believe that there ready existed such 
a code of laws as the " Blue Laws " of Connecticut. 



4i In his History of Connecticutt "Rev. Samuel Peters cites as an example 
of the "Blue Laws" the following: "No one shall run on the Sabbath 
day, or walk in his garden or elsewhere ex"ept reverently to and from meet- 
ing. " "No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or fasting day.'" 
"No one shall read common prayer, keep Christmas or saints' days, make 
mince pies, dance, play cards or play on any instrument of music except 
the drum, trumpet and jewsharp. 



RHODE ISLAND 

117. Providence Founded by Roger Williams, 1636. — We 
have seen [Section 97], in the study of Massachusetts, how 
Roger Williams, after being sentenced by the general court 
to be deported to England escaped into the wilderness. For 
fourteen weeks he wandered about from place to place, often- 
times sleeping in hollow trees, and as he said, " not knowing 
what bread or bed did mean." He finally reached the wig- 
wam of Chief Massasoit where he was entertained during the 
winter. In the spring, Canonieus. chief of the Xarragansetts, 
gave him a tract of land on the Narragansett. Later with 
five other friends he established a settlement which they called 
Providence. [Plate No. 3.] In 1639 Anne Hutchinson, who, 
it will be remembered [Section 98], w r as also banished from 
Massachusetts, made a settlement at Portsmouth, and still 
later, William Coddington and Mrs. Hutchinson, with about 
sixty of their followers, who had become dissatisfied with 
Portsmouth, moved again to the southern end of the island, 
where they founded Newport. 

Lack of Harmony in Rhode Island. — The fact that com- 
plete religious toleration was guaranteed, caused this colony 
to become a refuge for people of all the different beliefs. 
Furthermore, fanatics and people of every turbulent disposi- 
tion flocked here on account of the protection offered. 

Fiske, in his " Beginnings of New England," regarding the 
conditions in Rhode Island, writes as follows: " All extremes 
met on Narragansett Bay. There were not only sensible ad- 
vocates of religious liberty but theocrats as well, who saw 
flaws in the theocracy of other Puritans. The English world 
was then in a state of theological fermentation. People who 
fancied themselves favored with direct revelations from Heav- 
en; people who thought it right to keen the seventh day of the 
week as a Sabbath instead of the first dav . . . p^onV who 
advocated either too little or too much marriage; all such ec- 
centric characters . . . found in Fhode Isi'ard a favored spot 
where they could prophesy without let or hindrance. But the 
immediate practical result of so much discordance in opinion 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 81 

was the impossibility of founding a strong and well-ordered 
government. The early history of Rhode Island is marked by 
enough of turbulence to suggest the question whether, after all, 
at the bottom of the Puritans ' refusal to recognize the doctrine 
of private inspiration, or to tolerate indiscriminately all sorts 
of opinions, there may not have been a grain of shrewd political 
sense not ill adapted to the social conditions of the seventeenth 
century. ' ' 

The above quotation gives a vivid idea of the difficulties \v 11, 
which Williams and his followers had to contend, and it is grat- 
ifying to know that the colony finally proved a success, and 
that the constitutions, not only of all the states, but of the 
United States, as well as other great powers today contain the 
very principles and guarantee the same privileges as laid out 
in the constitution of Rhode Island. 

118. The Charters. — In 1640 the two settlements on Rhode 
Island became united under the name of Rhode Island, and in 
1644 Williams went to England and secured a charter which 
united Providence Plantation and Rhode Island into a single 
province. It is a noteworthy fact that under this charter 
complete religious toleration was granted. The church and 
state were entirely separate ; no religious tests were required ; 
the government may be said to have been a pure democracy. 
Bachelors, however, w T ere not allowed to vote. 

In 1663 the king granted a second charter to Rhode Island. 
This was very similar to the charter granted to Connecticut 
[Section 114], to which we have previously referred in the 
study of Connecticut. This was the charter which became the 
state constitution of Rhode Island, and remained in force for 
many years after the Revolutionary War. 



NEW YORK 






"~ ,! *~~,*2 





EARLY VIEWS OF NEW YORK CITY 

119. Dutch Traders and the Dutch West India Company. — 

In section forty-four we learned that in 1609 Henry Hudson 
explored all the country near and around the Hudson River 
and Hudson Bay. The next year the Dutch established a col- 
ony near the mouth of the Hudson River, where they carried 
on a profitable trade in furs. Soon several trading posts and 
forts were established, and in fact, the trade with the Indians 
became so profitable that in 1615 the States General of Hol- 
land granted a trading charter to the New Netherlands Com- 
pany. The charter given to this company expired in 1621, at 
which time the New Netherland Company was succeeded by 
the West India Company. This company was given the right 
to employ soldiers, to make treaties, to maintain courts, to 

« Rip Van Winkle, and Knickerbocker's New York, by Irving; Fiske, 
Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America; Fisher, Colonial Era; Thwaites, 
The Colonies; McLaughlin, History of the American Nation; Old South 
Leaflets, nos. 69, 75. 94. 95, 96, and Hart, Source Book, nos. 16, 22. 23, 
25, 26, 32. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 83 

make settlements, and provide for the colonization of the 
country. 

120. Settlements. — The same year (1624) that James I 
made Virginia a royal province the West India Company es- 
tabished their first colony. This colony consisted of about 
thirty families who made settlements at Albany (Fort Orange). 
Fort Nassau on the Delaware [Plate No. 3], Manhattan Island, 
and as we already know, at Hartford. Connecticut [Section 
111.] Two years later Peter Minuit bought of the Indians, 
Manhattan Island, giving in exchange about twenty-four dol- 
lars' worth of commodities. The Dutch now claimed all the 
country from the Delaware River to Connecticut, and called it 
" New Netherlands." The settlement on Manhattan Island 
was named New Amsterdam, after the city of Amsterdam in 
Holland. 

121. The Patroons. — In 1629, in order to encourage perma- 
nent settlement, the States General of Holland granted to the 
West India Company a new charter. This charter gave the 
members of the company the right to purchase from the In- 
dians large tracts of land on which permanent settlements 
were to be established. For every colony of fifty persons over 
fifteen years of age, the member was given a title and control 
of a tract of land which might extend sixteen miles in width 
on one side of any of the numerous rivers, or it might extend 
eight miles on both sides of the river. The founder of one of 
these colonies was known as a Patroon. 

Although the immediate effect was to cause the members of 
the company to make many settlements in ''New Netherlands," 
yet the plan was illy adapted to the democratic notions which 
soon were to become part of the natures of the early colonists, 
and in later years, as we shall see, caused a great deal of 
trouble. 

122. New Amsterdam becomes New York. 43 — By looking at 
the map [Plate No. 31, we will see that the New Netherlands 
was situated in the neutral part of the territory which was 
granted by England [Section 65] to the London Company and 
Plymouth Company. 

Holland and England were strong commercial rivals and nat- 
urally their colonies took up the conflict. It will be remembered 
how both the English and Dutch entered into a conflict for the 

■is The Dutchman 's Fireside, by Paulding. 



S4 STUDENTS' BISTORT OF THE UNITED STA IT.s 




control of the Connecticut Valley Section ill. Charles 11, 

in HUH, who was about to engage in a war 
with Holland, sent a strong force to cap- 
ture Now Netherlands, OKI Peter Stuyve- 
sant, the director general, pleaded with his 
people to fight, hut the people in New 
Netherlands never having- had any hand 
in making- the laws, had very little inter- 
est in the government. Furthermore, there 
was very little powder, only twenty oan- 
'• "^^M^ ' nous, and not over two hundred soldiers in 
! - [JYVESANT the entire eolony, while the English were 

IFrom r [Minting in the we \\ supplied with soldiers, eatmons, and 
uoss 'ssioa " ' he \ \ . . 

Historical Society) other munitions of war. Atter nuieh par- 

leying Governor Stuyvesant finally surrendered. 

Charles 11 had already given to his brother, James. Puke of 

York, a grant of New Netherland, and SO in his honor, the name 
New Netherland was now re-ehristened New York. 

123. English Colonies form a Continuous Line. England's 
colonies now formed a continuous line, with QO enemy nearer 

than the French in Canada. Although in 1673, during a war 
between England and Holland, New York was again captured 
by tin- Dutch, yet in a few months it was given back to Eng- 
land in exchange for Dutch Guiana. So ended the Dutch rule 
in North America. 

124 Andros, Leisler, and Sloughter." Governor Andros, 
who was so thoroughly disliked in Massachusetts, fared do 
hotter in New York. When James 11 was deposed. Jacob Leis- 
ler. a successful merchant and soldier of New York, took com- 
mand of the army, arrested the deputy governor whom Andros 

had appointed over New York, and seized the government in 
tin 1 name of William and Mary, the new rulers of England. 
For some unknown reason, when the newly appointed gG\ 
ernor, Sloughter, arrived, Leisler refused to turn over the gov- 
ernment. He was finally arrested and executed for treason by 
Sloughter. However, some claim Sloughter unwillingly signed 

the death warrant while under the influence o( strong drink. 

125. Government. As before explained, the government, as 
meted out by the Dutch governors, was very unsatisfactory. 
These colonists, lik-i 'heir neighbors, were liberty loving poo 

ntghtvr, by Byrnes. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 85 

pie, and wished to !><■ identified, in some way, in the making 
of the Laws by which they were governed. The governor choi e 
his council from a lis) <»r nominees from the Beveral Bettle 
ments. This council soon became self-elective and tin govern 
nicni came near being an oligarchy So we may readily per 
ceive why the people of New Netherlands were willing to ur 
render to the English especially when they were promised ;i 
hct i i-y form of governmenl . 

L26. Duke's Laws. After New Netherlands became New 
York, ;i system of laws, known as the " Duke's Laws," were 
introduced by Governor Nicholas. The laws provided for the 
election of town officers, 1 1 - i .- 1 1 by jury, and freedom of worship. 
In L683 an assembly, to be elected by the people, was granted. 

1L'7. Religion.- The charter of the Wes1 India Company was 
in many ways an exceedinglj liberal charter, Tins is th< 
charter in the history of the world winch placed both rel 
and education entirely in the hands of the people Eleligiou 
toleration existed from i h<- beginning of the colony. In the 
"Documentary History of New York" a quotation from ' 
ernor Dougan, written in 1687, read i follows: . . . tew 
Roman Catholics, abundance of Quaker preachers, men and 
women especially; singing Quakers, ranting Quakers, Sabbat 
arians; Anti-Sabbatarians; some Anabaptists; some Independ- 
ents; some Jews; in short all sorts of opinions. . . 

128 Education. While the hutch had control of the co 
;i good system of common schools w;is maintained by public 
aid, bul by the close of the seventeenth century the Engli h 
allowed these schools to become entirely neglected. The Eng 
lish established many church schools. bu1 the Dutch did no1 
take kindly to the e and it wai many years I. '-fore New Fork, 
under the Engli h had a good schools as were maintained un- 
der t he I )iii<-h rule. 



NEW JERSEY 

129. Early History. — It is quite probable that Henry Hud- 
son was the first European to set foot on the shores of New 
Jersey. By virtue of this discovery [Section 44], as before 
stated. Holland laid claim to this part of the New World. The 
first settlements were made by the Dutch fur traders from 
New Netherlands, who established a post at Bergen (Jersey 
City). 

The king of Sweden, also desiring to found a colony in the 
Xew World, established a settlement in what was later known 
as West Jersey. This led to a dispute between the two nations. 
Finally Governor Stuyvesant, in 1655, with a small army, com- 
pletely subdued the Swedes. 

In 1664 New Jersey, with other colonies, passed into the 
hands of the Duke of York, and he in turn granted it to Lord 
Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. 

The government established by these parties was very lib- 
eral and consisted of a governor, council, and elective assem- 
bly. Complete religious toleration was also guaranteed. Un- 
der the concessions in 1665, an English settlement was begun 
at Elizabethtown. and in the following year Newark and Mid- 
dletown were founded by emigrants from New England. 

130. East and West Jersey. — The colonists who settled in 
New Jersey followed the precedent, which had been estab- 
lished by settlers in some of the other colonies, of purchasing 
their lands from the Indians. This not only made friends of 
the Indians, but gave the colonists an excuse for refusing to 
pay rent to the proprietors. However, the proprietors still 
claimed the right to the rent, and by 1672 this claim had 
caused so much disturbance that Berkeley, who had become 
thoroughly disgusted, sold his undivided share of New Jersey 
to William Penn and other Quakers. In 1676 Carteret and 
these Quakers agreed upon a boundary line running from Lit- 
tle Egg Harbor to the Delaware, to a point at forty-one de- 
grees and forty minutes. The Quakers now took that part 
known as West Jersey, and Carteret remained in control of 
what was known as East Jersey. The Quakers established a 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 87 

very liberal form of government in West Jersey. A repre- 
sentative assembly was chosen by the people, and from this 
assembly an executive council of ten members was chosen. Thus 
the people controlled the governing 1 power. Complete religious 
toleration was granted. 

In 1680 Sir George Carteret died, and two years later twenty- 
five Quakers, one of whom was William Penn, purchased from 
the heirs of Carteret, East Jersey. A form of government very 
similar to that of West Jersey was established, the chief dif- 
ference being that here the proprietors and their deputies 
formed the executive council. 

131 Trouble with the Duke of York. — Both of these col- 
onies made wonderful progress and on this account the Duke 
of York wished again to bring them under his control. In or- 
der to protect his interests in these colonies, William Penn was 
forced to return to England, and after a long and hard fight 
with the Duke of York, was forced to give up his claims. 
Later, however, when the Duke of York became King James II, 
of England, he united New Jersey, New England, and New 
York, and Governor Andros was appointed royal governor. At 
the downfall of Andros [Section 103], the colony for ten years 
was left without any form of government. At the close of 
this period and by the request of the colonists. Queen Ann 
made New Jersey a royal colony. In 1738 New Jersey secured 
a separate administration, her last royal governor being Wil- 
liam Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin. 



PENNSYLVANIA 45 

132. The Friends, or Quakers. — During our study of the 
colonies, we have several times met with a religious sect of 
people known as " Friends or Quakers." The Friends were 
a branch of one of the many different sects of dissenters, who 
were in trouble with the Stuarts. George Fox, who was the 
founder of this sect, on one occasion is said to have stated to 
the judge of the court, ' ' I bid thee tremble before the word of 
the Lord. ' ' The English in derision called this judge a Quaker, 
and so the name was finally applied to the society of Friends. 

Many of the first people who became Quakers probably were 
of the lower class of the English people. However, these peo- 
ple were not only enthusiastic, but were of good morals, and 
their religious ideas were so free from defect that they soon 
had a very large following. 

Their belief was a pure and spiritual doctrine. They fol- 
lowed what they designated as the " inner light," and accord- 
ingly they refused to recognize any form of church doctrine. 
They did not believe in war, and therefore would not pay taxes 
for the support of war. They also refused to be taxed for the 
support of churches, as they believed "that every person is 
his own priest, and paid ministers are unnecessary." They 
did not believe in forms or rules of etiquette; they refused to 
uncover their heads or bow to royalty, or to be sworn in court. 
They disliked prefixes and titles, and believed in very plain 
dress and language. 

133. William Penn and His Holy Experiment. — William 
Penn was the son of Sir William Penn, a noted admiral in the 
English navy. The Penns were noted as a family, with a great 
war record in the English army and nan, and it is no wonder 
that William Penn's father was astonished when it became 
known to him that his son had become a convert of the great 
Quaker preacher, George Fox. At this time Penn was ;i student 
at Oxford University, and on account of his Quaker affiliations, 
he was expelled from the university. On account of his obnox- 

45 History of William Penn, by Dixon ; Pennsylvania, by Gordon. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 



89 




ious conduct and his religious ideas, he was oftentimes thrown 

into prison, and several times was 
cast off by his father, but as many 
times again received back into his 
favor. 

Admiral Penn not only was a very 
wealthy man, but was a great friend 
and close adviser of the king. How- 
ever, this in no way seemed to lessen 
the persecution which was heaped up- 
on his son, on account of his religious 
beliefs. 

It will be remembered that William 
Penn. with others, was interested in 
the colony of West Jersey [Section 
130], and falling heir to his father's 
vast fortune, he soon began to plan a colony for the persecuted 
members of his sect. Charles II had become indebted to Penn's 
father to the amount of eighty thousand dollars, and Penn, in 
lieu of this debt, was given a proprietary charter to all unoccu- 



WILLIAM PENN 
(After the painting in the rooms 
of the Pennsylvania Historical 
Society, Philadelphia) 










WM. PENN'S TREATY ELM 



pied regions which remained in the neutral zone between the 
grants of the London and Plymouth Companies, consisting of 
about, four thousand square miles. [Section 65 and Plate No. 3.] 

In honor of William Penn's father, the king named this ter- 
ritory " Pennsylvania." meaning Penn's Woods. 

134. The Constitution and Laws. — The constitution which 



90 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

was drawn up by Penn, for the government of his colony, pro- 
vided that all races and classes of people should be given the 
same equal advantages in regard to personal, civil, and relig- 
ious liberty. The constitution was copied after the New Jer- 
sey constitution, and provided that proprietors were to choose 
the governor, but that the people were to elect the members 
of the assembly and council. 

135. Relations with the Indians. — As soon as Penn arrived, 
he proceeded at once to re-buy from the Indians all the lands 
which he had received from the king. In this way he gained 
the friendship and the confidence of the different tribes, and 
soon entered into a treaty with the Indians. This treaty is 
known as the only treaty never signed and never broken by 
either the Indians or white men. Of course, it may be that 
some of the other colonists may have treated the Indians as 
well as did Penn, and it must be remembered that he was for- 
tunate in having to deal with the Delawares, who had recently 
been reduced to submission by the Five Nations, who were firm 
friends of the English. 

136. Mason and Dixon's Line. — [Plate No. 3.] On account 
of the over-lapping of the claims of Lord Baltimore and Wil- 
liam Penn, there was a dispute about the boundary line be- 
tween Pennsylvania and Maryland. This dispute was not 
finally disposed of until 1766, when by agreement of the Penn 
and Baltimore families, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, 
two eminent London mathematicians, were instructed to run 
a line which has since been known as the " Mason and Dixon's 
Line." This line later became noted in the history of slavery, 
as it marked the separation of the slave from the free states. 

137. Growth of Pennsylvania. 40 — Many things seem to have 
been favorable for the growth of Pennsylvania. The territory 
was well supplied with natural advantages. Iron and coal 
were abundant; the country was well covered with forests; 
navigable rivers flowed through its borders, and complete re- 
ligious toleration was guaranteed. Therefore it is not to be 
wondered at that at the end of three years, Philadelphia had 
gained more in population than New York had in a half century. 



46 Fiske, Dutch and Quaker Colonies, vol. i. 



DELAWARE 

138. Settlements at Wilmington, 1638.— [Plate No. 3.] The 
first settlement in Delaware was established in 1631 by a Pat- 
roon, named De Vries, and thirty-two Hollanders, at Swaanen- 
dael (Lewis). This entire colony was massacred by the In- 
dians. In 1638 Peter Minuet, under the direction of Queen 
Christina, with a company of Swedes and Finns, settled on the 
lower Delaware, near Fort Christina (Wilmington). 

139. The Dutch at New Amsterdam considered this as an 
intrusion by the Swedes, but because Sweden was a strong ally 
of Holland in the Thirty Years' War, they were unable to do 
anything. However, at the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, this 
difficulty was removed, and in 1655 Governor Stuyvesant, with a 
large force, sailed against the Swedes and compelled them to sur- 
render. Delaware was finally granted to the Duke of York, who 
al<*o seized the Dutch colony on the west side of Delaware Bay. 
These settlements he held and governed as part of New York 
until 1681, when he sold them to William Penn. 

140. The Three Lower Counties. — After purchasing Dela- 
ware from the Duke of York, Penn had an outlet to the sea. 
The people of both Pennsylvania and Delaware were under one 
government until 1703. At the request of the people of the 
three lower counties, they were granted a distinct assembly, 
the laws being administered by Penn's deputy. 




MARYLAND AT ST. MARY'S, 1634 

[Plate No. 3.] 

141. Lord Baltimore. 47 — His Liberal Grants. — Among the 
fathers of colonization, none stand 
higher in the estimation of the present 
student of history than George Calvert, 
the first Lord Baltimore, and father of 
Maryland. 

George Calvert was a man of great 
influence in England. In 1658 he be- 
came converted to the Catholic faith 
and at once began to make arrange- 
ments with the king for a grant of 
land where the then persecuted Cath- 
olics might make themselves a home. 
Two years later Calvert tried to found 
a colony at Newfoundland, which 
proved a failure ; later, with a company of his fellow-Catholics, 
he tried to establish a settlement in Virginia, but on account 
of the inhospitality of the Protestant Virginians, this was also 
given up. Returning to England, he was granted by the king, 
a tract of land lying within the original grant of the London 

47 Browne, George Calvert and Cecilius Calvert, Barons Baltimore of Balti- 
more, in Makers of America series. 

Of the first authoritative map of the province of Maryland, now among 
the treasures of the British Museum, O 'Neil, author of Terra Mariae, says 
on p. 164: 

"In the Grenville Library is the only map ever made by Faithorne, an 
artist distinguished for crayon portraits and delicate copper-plate engraving. 
On it is this statement: 'Virginia and Maryland; as it is planted and in- 
habited this present year, 1670: surveyed and exactly drawne by the only 
labours and endeavours of Augustine Herrman, Bohemiensis ; ' also a 
beautiful portrait of the original settler of Bohemia Manor. ' ' 

As far as known, Herrman is the first native of Bohemia to settle in the 
TJ. S. He was exiled from Bohemia at the same time that John Amos 
Comenius, educator, and 36.000 other Bohemian protestants were forced to 
flee to other lands. 



SIR GEO. CALVERT 

OR 
LORD BALTIMORE 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 93 

Company, of which Calvert was a stockholder. This tract of 
land was bounded on the north by the fortieth degree of lat- 
itude, on the south by the Potomac River and a line running- 
east from the mouth of this river to the Atlantic Ocean, and 
on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and the Delaware Bay, and 
on the west by a line running- due north from the source of the 
Potomac River. Before Sir George Calvert was able to finish 
his schemes of colonization, he died, but was succeeded by his 
son, the second Lord Baltimore, Cecil Calvert, who was a man 
of broad and liberal ideas, and in every way fitted to succeed 
his father. 

142. How the Colony was Ruled. — Lord Baltimore ruled 
over this colony in much the same way as the king ruled over 
the nation ; he appointed the officers, declared war, signed 
treaties, conferred titles, made the laws, administered justice, 
sentenced and pardoned criminals, but he could not tax the peo- 
ple without their consent. For these privileges he paid to his 
king, annually, two arrow heads and one-fifth of all the gold 
and silver found. 

143. The First Colonists.— The first colonists left England 
in the autumn of 1633, and reached America the following 
February. The company was under the direction of a brother 
of Lord Baltimore, with the instructions that he should do 
everything in his power to preserve unity and peace. A settle- 
ment was made at the mouth of the Potomac River, at a place 
called St. Mary's. 

144. Claiborne's Opposition. — The early history of Mary- 
land would have been much the same as that of Pennsylvania, 
had it not been for the controversies with Claiborne, over the 
ownership of Kent Island. William Claiborne was a Puritan 
of considerable wealth, and claimed that the grant given to 
Lord Baltimore belonged to himself. He had previously estab- 
lished a trading post and settlements on Kent Island, but was 
driven off by the Calverts. In 1645. with a company of rifle- 
men, Claiborne was able to drive the Calverts over into Vir- 
ginia. After much bloodshed, the trouble was finally settled 
by the king in favor of Maryland and the Calverts. 

145. Growth of Maryland and Toleration Acts. — Owing to 
the broad-minded policy of Lord Baltimore, Maryland was 
prosperous from the beginning. Although the colony was 
founded as a home for persecuted Catholics, yet the Catholics 
did not persecute people of different faiths, who wished to 



94 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

come and live among- them. The people of Maryland were 
granted complete toleration in religious matters. 

Alsop in Hart I, describes the condition in the following 
language : "He that desires to see the real Platform of a quiet 
and sober government extant, superiority with a meek and yet 
commanding power sitting at the helme, steering the actions 
of a state quietly, ... let him look on Maryland . . . 
the meracle of this age . . . here the Roman Catholic and 
the Protestant Episcopal . . . concur in an unanimous 
parallel of friendship and inseparable love, . . . The sev- 
eral opinions and sects . . . with a reverent quietness obeys 
the legal commands of authority." 

However, later, trouble did arise over religious matters, and 
in 1649 a toleration act was passed, which guaranteed to each 
individual the free exercise of his religious beliefs, providing 
he believed in Jesus Christ. This quieted all matters referring 
to religion up to 1691, when the colony became a royal pro- 
vince, and the Catholics were again persecuted. Subsequently 
Maryland was again given back to the Baltimores, and again 
religious toleration was restored. This condition remained up 
to the Revolutionary War. 



THE CAROLINAS 

146. Early History. — [Plate No. 3.] The early history of 
the Carolinas is a narrative of failure. Different nations at 
different times tried to found colonies within her domains, but 
on account of unforeseen events, they all proved failures. It 
will be remembered how the Spanish attempted to make set- 
tlements [see Section 28], also how the French Huguenots un- 
der Ribaut. built a fort at Port Royal [see Section 38], also 
how Raleigh made several attempts, which ended in the trag- 
edy of the "Lost Colony" [see Section 50]. Grants were 
made to several different parties, but it was not until 1663 
that any permanent settlements were made, although in 1653 
a class of trappers and hunters, known as " poor whites," and 
dissenters from the Church of England, moved from the north 
— mostly Virginia — ■ and established a place known as Albe- 
marle, on the Chowan River. This colony finally became 
known as the Clarendon Colony. However, in 1663, King 
Charles II granted to some of his favorites a vast tract lying 
south of Virginia, and later this grant was enlarged until it 
embraced the greater part of the southern half of the United 
States. In 1670 Charles Town (Charleston) was started on 
the peninsula between the Ashley and Cooper Rivers. 

147. The Grand Model. 48 — Among the men who received 
this grant of land from Charles II was Lord Ashley Cooper, 
who later became Earl of Shaftesbury. The philosopher, John 
Locke, was at this time acting as private secretary to Cooper, 
and was requested by Cooper to draft a constitution for Car- 
olina. This constitution was known as the "Grand Model" 
and was drawn up on much the same plan as the laws of the 
old feudal times. The people were divided into castes, and the 
land into fiefs, much the same as in the days of William the 
Conqueror. Legislation was in the hands of an unwieldy as- 
sembly, and the entire scheme was as visionary as it was im- 
practicable. It is enough to say that it was very unsatisfac- 
tory, and was never enforced to any great extent. 

48 McCrady, History of South Carolina under the Proprietary Government. 



96 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

148. Smugglers and Pirates. 49 — The navigation laws [Sec- 
tion 195] were in force at this time, and were aimed to keep 
other nations from trading with the English colonies. The 
colonists did not look kindly toward these laws, as they were 
glad to trade with all nations. In order, therefore, to evade 
these laws, there was established a system of smuggling. Car- 
goes were landed in small bays or rivers, in out-of-the-way 
places, and then smuggled into the colonies. This system, how- 
ever, led to much suffering and distress, as there were also 
extant a class of pirates, who not only smuggled their goods 
into ports, but were even so bold as to capture ships and mur- 
der the seamen and passengers, making the ships and goods 
their own. 

The Carolinas were settled at the time when this system of 
smuggling and piracy was at its height, and at first favored 
these pirates and assisted them in every way possible. Other 
colonies were also inclined to favor them. It is even said that 
Governor Fletcher, of New York, sold licenses to the pirates. 
Soon, however, this system began to hinder the commerce, and 
then the Carolinas as well as other colonies, aided in eradicat- 
ing this evil, and by 1730 had succeeded in reducing it to a 
minimum. 

The narratives of the bold adventures of Captain Kidd, 
Blackbeard, and other pirates, read like romances of the mid- 
dle ages, yet, from what we can learn, the narratives are not 
in the least over drawn. 

149. Separation. — Although the two settlements in Caro- 
lina were for a time under the same governor, yet the political 
and social, as well as topographical differences, made it ap- 
parent that the separation of Carolina into two distinct col- 
onies was a necessity. The two different settlements were re- 
mote from each other, and therefore had little communication, 
and while the north colony was settled by people from Vir- 
ginia and other northern colonies, who were mechanics, mer- 
chants, trappers, and hunters, the south w r as settled by planters 
who became large slave owners and lived in lordly elegance 
on great plantations. Consequently in 1712 the colony was 
formally divided into North Carolina and South Carolina, and 
in 1729 the proprietors sold their interest to the king, and each 
colony became a royal province and so remained until the 
Revolution. 



49 Old Virginia, by Fiske ; Gold Bug, by Poe. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 97 

150. Indian Troubles. — The Tusearoras, who lived on the 
western slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains, became restless 
under the advance of civilization. The Spanish in Florida 
doubtless urged them to attack the English, in the hope that 
the colony would be destroyed. In 1711, during Queen Anne's 
War [see Section 158], they perpetrated fearful crimes on the 
remote settlements. However, in 1712 the colonists were able 
to defeat them, and in 1715 the remnant of the tribe moved 
north and became what is known as the " Sixth Nation " of 
the Iroquois Confederacy [Section 162.] 




GEORGIA AT SAVANNAH IN 1733^" 

151. Early History. — [Plate No. 3.] The last of the orig- 
inal thirteen colonies to be estab- 
lished in the western hemisphere 
was Georgia, which was founded at 
the extreme south of the Atlantic 
seaboard, just one hundred and 
twenty-six years after the settle- 
ment of Jamestown. The other 
twelve colonies had been settled witb 
the idea of commercial and relig- 
ious advantages, while Georgia was 
settled from purely philanthropic 
principles. James Oglethorpe, 51 who 

james edward Oglethorpe wag a mem ber of parliament, was 
(From portrait by Ravenet) one of a commission appointed to 
investigate the system of imprisonment for debt, and became 
so impressed by the distressing condition found within the 
prison walls, that in 1732, he, in company with other prom- 
inent persons, applied to the king for a charter of the country 
lying between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers, and ex- 
tending west to the South Sea (Pacific Ocean). It was thought 
also that by founding a colony here, it would act as a barrier 
between the Carolinas and the troublesome Spaniards of Flor- 
ida, as well as furnish a home for these poor people of Eng- 
land. 

The colony was named Georgia, in honor of King George II, 
and Oglethorpe, with thirty-five families, in 1733, made the 
first settlement at Savannah, near the mouth of the Savannah 
River. 

152. Character of the Colonists. — The first colonists who 
arrived were very poor material out of which to build a col- 
ony. They consisted chiefly of beggars, vagabonds, and debt- 

50 McLaughlin 's History of the American Nation; Thwaites 's The Col- 
onics; Channing's Student's History of the United States; Hart's Source 
Boole of American History. 

si Henry Bruce in the Makers of America series. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 99 

ors, very few of whom were willing to work. Also the laws, 
which were in the hands of the trustees, were unfitted for the 
existing- conditions in the colony, and it seemed as though the 
scheme would turn out a complete failure. However, there 
soon arrived from Austria a ship-load of Lutheran refugees, 
who founded the town of Ebenezer. Later, John Wesley and 
Charles Wesley, the founders of the Methodist church, along 
with a company of Moravians 51a and Scotch Highlanders, ar- 
rived, and with the infusion of these sturdy immigrants, Geor- 
gia was placed on a more nearly firm basis. 

153. Spaniards and Indians. — Hardly had the colony be- 
come a permanent institution, w r hen war broke out between 
England and Spain. [Queen Anne's War, see Section 158.] 
Oglethorpe at once took the part of the aggressor and marched 
against St. Augustine. Here he was repulsed, and the Span- 
iards in return tried to drive the English out of Georgia. They 
landed with three thousand men and Oglethorpe waited pa- 
tiently until the Spaniards were drawn into a suitable posi- 
tion, when he attacked them. The fight was a short one and 
the Spaniards were thoroughly beaten. Oglethorpe then 
marched, again, against St. Augustine, but was unable to cap- 
ture the city. 

This ended the Spaniards' idea of capturing any of the Eng- 
lish colonies. However, they proved a great annoyance to the 
people of Georgia, inasmuch as they were constantly stirring 
up the Indians. Not until Andrew Jackson had boldly marched 
into the Spanish territory [Section 365]. and completely sub- 
dued the Indians, was Georgia free from these atrocities. 

After twenty years of labor among these people, Oglethorpe 
became thoroughly disappointed, and returned to England. 
Georgia, in 1752, became a royal province. 



3ia These Moravians were religious refugees belonging to a Protestant 
sect failed "Bohemian and Moravian Brethren." They came to Georgia in 
1735. To their efforts is due the conversion of many hundreds of Indians. 
They also founded colonies at Bethlehem, Pa. (1741). "North Carolina (1753). 
Lititz, Pa, (1756), etc. 



INTER-COLONIAL WARS 

154. England and France.'- — During the latter part of the 
seventeenth and the earlier part of the eighteenth centuries, 
England and France were almost constantly at war with each 
other. Among the general and remote causes of these wars, 
the following may be mentioned : 

1. A desire of each nation to become the dictating nation 
of Europe. 

2. The rivalry of the two established Christian faiths, Eng- 
land being Protestant and France Catholic. 

3. The conflicting claims of the two nations in the western 
hemisphere. 

These conflicts were always of such a nature that their re- 
spective colonies in America were drawn into the struggle, 
and in the history of the United States these wars are spoken 
of as the "Inter Colonial Wars." 

155. King William's War (1689-97).— In 1688 James II, 
who was a zealous Catholic, became so obnoxious to the peo- 
ple of England that he was obliged to flee to France. His son- 
in-law. William of Orange, who was the champion of Protest- 
antism, ascended the throne. Louis XIV of France now took 
up the quarrel in behalf of James II, and in 1689 war was de- 
clared between England and France. 

156. Count Frontenac and Indian Atrocities. — [Plate No. 3.] 
Count Frontenac, who was now governor of Canada, planned 
to send a strong force of French and Indians down the Hudson 
Valley and capture New York. However, the Mohawk In- 
dians, who had not as yet forgotten the Champlain incident, 
suddenly attacked and captured Montreal. Frontenac now 

52 Hough, The Mississippi Bubble; Baldwin. Conquest of the Old North- 
west ; Parkman, A Half Century of Conflict. Montcalm and Wolfe and The 
Conspiracy of Pontiac; "Fiske, Neic France and New England; Roosevelt, 
Winning of the West, vol. i ; Hosmer, Short History of the Mississippi red- 
ley; McLaughlin, History of the American Nation; Thwaites, The Colonies; 
Hart, Formation of the Union; Channinsr, Student's History of the United 
Stales; Old South Leaflets, no. 73, and Hart's Source Book, nos. 37, 39 and 
40. Gilbert Parker's two novels, The Trail of the Sword and The Seats of 
flu Mighty, will afford interesting and helpful collateral reading. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 101 

decided to organize small bands of French and Indians, who 
were sent to attack the unprotected settlements of the north- 
ern colonies. At Schenectady, New York, and Salmon Falls, 
New Hampshire, men, women, and children were dragged from 
their beds and tomahawked. Many were made prisoners, while 
a few made their escape. Later (1697) Haverhill, [Massachu- 
setts, was attacked and nearly the entire population were either 
left homeless, captured, or massacred. The common danger 
aroused the people and a convention was called (1690) at Ww 
York to discuss matters incident to the Avar. Although only New 
York, Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut sent dele- 
gates and nothing was done, yet it is well to remember that 
this was the first attempt to call delegates to a congress from 
all the colonies. 

157. Port Royal Captured. — [See Annapolis, Plate No. :!. 
During this same year Sir William Phipps captured Port Roy- 
al, Nova Scotia. Other expeditions were undertaken against 
Quebec and Montreal, but all were failures. 

At the close of the war in 1697 (see treaty of Ryswick), Port 
Royal was given back to the French and so nothing was gained 
by either side. 

It will be well, however, to remember that several important 
historical facts which we have already studied transpired dur- 
ing this war. In 1691 Massachusetts received her new charter 
rsee Section 1031 and it was also about this time that many 
innocent persons were condemned to death on account of the 
Salem witchcraft. [See Seel ion 102.] 

158. Queen Anne's War (1702-13).— The interval of peace 
between King William's War and Queen Anne's War was only 
five short years. In 1702 England declared war against both 
France and Spain. The colonies in America at once took up the 
tight, both French and Spanish colonies uniting against tin 1 Eng- 
lish colonies. 

159. The War in the South. — The southern colonists in 1702 
attacked the Spanish at St. Augustine [Plate No. 2. Section 1531, 
but were repulsed. In 1706 a combined force of French and 
Spanish attempted to capture Charleston, South Carolina, but 
w ere also unsuccessful, so that at the close of the Avar conditions 
in the south were unchanged. 

160. The War in the North.— [Plate Xo. 3.] In the north the 
war was pursued on the same plan as in the previous war. The 
Iroquois, having made a treaty with the French remained neutral 



102 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and thus protected New York, but the New England frontier 53 
from Maine to Massachusetts was laid waste by the French and 
Indians. Saco, Maine, and Deerfield, Massachusetts, were scenes 
of the most brutal Indian massacres known in history and Haver- 
hill was again laid waste. 

161. Port Royal Captured. — [Plate No. 3.] After two unsuc- 
cessful attempts, Port Royal was again captured in 1710 by a 
combined force of English and colonial troops. Finally in 1713 
the war was closed by the treaty of Utrecht. By the terms of 
this treaty Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and all the country drain- 
ed by the Hudson Bay was ceded to England. Port Royal was 
renamed Annapolis in honor of Queen Anne. 

162. Tuscaroras. — As before stated [see Sections 150-153] it 
was during the progress of Queen Anne's War, the Tuscaroras, a 
branch of the Iroquois, attacked the English colonies of North 
Carolina. The Indians themselves were defeated and migrate 1 
to New York where they united with the Five Nations which 
thereafter was known as the Six Nations. 

1 63. King George 's War 34 (1744-48) . — During the interval of 
thirty-one years between Queen Anne's War and King George's 
War, the French had built a chain of sixty forts from Canada to 
the Gulf of Mexico. The French were anxious to reconquer t he 
territory which was given to the English by the treaty of Utrecht. 
Having this idea in view, they built and fortified a fort on Cape 
Breton Island at a cost of nearly six million dollars. This fort 
they named Louisburg. 

164. Capture of Louisburg. — [Plate No. 3.] In 1774 war was 
again declared. The French made arrangements to capture An- 
napolis and it seemed for a while that the whole of Nova Scotia 
would fall in their hands. However, the attention of the French 
was soon directed to the protection of Louisburg. The English 
colonists raised an army of four thousand raw recruits which they 
placed under General Pepperel of Maine. This army, aided by 
four British war vessels, after a long siege, captured Louisburg, 
and thus saved Nova Scotia. 

165. Treaty of Peace. — Tn 1784, by the treaty of Aix-la-Cha- 
peile. peace was again declared between France and England, 
and much to the disgust of the colonists Louisburg was given 
back to France. 



S3 The Boy Captive in Canada, by Mary P. Wells Smith. 
■'■•I A fines Burriage, by Bynner; Taking of Louisberg, by Drake; A Half 
Century of Conflict, vol. ii, by Parkman. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 103 

The war, however, taught the English colonists that they were 
able to protect their own rights, and settle their own affairs with- 
out depending entirely upon the mother country three thousand 
miles away. 

166. The French and Indian War 55 (1754-63)— Cause.— At 
the close of King George's War, the dispute regarding the bound- 
ary of the French and English nations in the New World was left 
to a commission which was unable to come to any definite agree- 
ment. As yet very few of the English colonists had settled in the 
Valley of the Ohio, but on account of the richness of this country, 
as well as the lack of territory east of the mountains, the English 
began to establish settlements, and these settlers soon came in 
contact with the French fur traders. 

167. The Buried Plates and the Ohio Company. — It soon be- 
came apparent, to both the French and the English, that steps 
must be taken to gain and hold possession of this important valley. 
The French laid their claims to the discovery of the rivers which 
drained these valleys. In 1749 Celoron (Saloran) was dispatched 
to take formal possession of the Ohio Valley. At different places 
he buried a number of lead plates on which were inscribed the 
French claims to this territory. Besides this, the French rebuilt 
and strengthened the line of forts extending from No via Scotia to 
the mouth of the Mississippi. 

On the other hand, the British based their claims on the discov- 
eries of the Cabots and treaties with the Indians. The king grant- 
ed to the Ohio Company a half million acres of land in the Ohio 
Valley on which they were to establish colonies and build a fort. 
This company was made up mostly of rich Virginian planters, and 
arrangements were at once made to send out a colony of three 
hundred families. 

168. Governor Dinwiddie Alarmed. — [Plate No. 3.] Soon 
Governor Dinw T iddie of Virginia heard that the French were 
building forts in the Ohio Valley. He became greatly alarmed 
and dispatched an envoy to demand their withdrawal. This 
messenger soon became frightened and returned. George Wash- 
ington, who was a young adjutant-general of the Virginia militia, 
was then chosen to carry the message. Washington was a young 
man of tw r enty-one years of age, and had been employed by the 
Ohio Company as surveyor. He was a very strong, trustworthy, 
and conscientious young man. Accompanied by the noted hunter 

55 Boys of the Border, by Mary P. Wells. 



104 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and woodsman, Christopher Gist, Washington started on his peril- 
ous journey of five hundred miles over hills and mountains, 
through swamps and marshes, and across frozen and treacherous 
rivers. He finally reached Fort Le Boeuf and delivered the 
message. He was cordially received, but was given to under- 
stand that the French expected to hold the territory. The next 
day Washington started on his return trip to Virginia. During 
the return trip, he was forced to discard the horses and make the 
trip through the dense forests w T ith one companion. Washington 
during this return trip several times barely escaped with his life, 
but after seventy-eight days of absence, he delivered the message 
to Governor Dinwiddie. 

169. Washington Advises Immediate Action. — Washington 
while making the trip to the French forts, had become convinced 
of the necessity of the English building forts at certain places. 
lie, therefore, notified the English that in order to hold the terri- 
tory, they should build a fort at the confluence of the Allegheny 
and Monongahela Rivers (now Pittsburgh). Governor Dinwiddie 
at once sent a company of backwoodsmen to carry out this plan. 
Washington later was dispatched to occupy this fort, but before 
he could arrive, the French attacked the company which were 
building it and drove them away. On the same site the French 
then threw up a rude fortification which they called Fort Du- 
quesne (doo kane). Washington, who was now at Willis Creek in 
western Maryland, heard of the capture of the fort, and started 
westward to regain the territory. While he was camped at Great 
Meadows in the southwest part of Pennsylvania, he received word 
thai ;i French force was near at hand. With forty men and the 
aid of a friendly tribe of Indians, he was able to meet and defeat 
the French. 

170 Fort Necessity.— [Plate No. 3.] At Great Meadows, 
Washington built a rude stockade which he named Fort Neces- 
sity. Here he was defeated by the French. He was, however, 
allowed to return to Virginia with his men. 

171. The Albany Congress and Franklin's Plan of Union.— 
As opposed to the previous inter-colonial wars, it will be noticed 
that the French and Indian War was begun by the colonists. 
The colonists all felt that Virginia's trouble with France was a 
common grief, and they immediately voted to aid her in this con- 
flict. While Washington was yet trying to uphold the English 
authority in the Ohio Valley, the lords of trade in London called 
delegates from all the colonies in a convention, known as the Al- 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 



105 



bany convention. This convention was called for the purpose 

of renewing the friendship of the Six 
Nations. After treating with the 
Indians, the convention proceeded to 
consider the question of uniting for 
the defense and protection of their 
common interests. Benjamin Frank- 
lin, one of the delegates to this con- 
vention, proposed a plan of colonial 
union. The plan was adopted by the 
convention, but was rejected by the colonists on the ground that 
it gave too much power to the king; the English also rejected it 
on the ground that it gave too much power to the colonies. 
Franklin, in his newspaper, the Philadelphia Gazette, printed a 
device of a serpent separated in distinct parts, each part to rep- 
resent a colony. Underneath this he printed the phrase "Join 




or Die. 



The hint was very significant. 








FORT NIAGARA 



172. The Objective Points of the War.— [Plate No. 3.] At the 
opening of the French and Indian War. the French were in pos- 
session of the four most important points, namely : 

1. Fort Duquesne, where Pittsburgh now stands, the key of 
the Ohio Valley. 



J 06 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

2. Fort Niagara, which controlled the fur trade of the lake 
region. 

3. Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which controlled the route 
from New York to Canada. 

4. Louisburg, the gateway to the St. Lawrence Valley and 
the city of Quebec. 

These four points the English felt must be captured in order 
that they might be successful in the war, and consequently the 
fol]owing campaigns were planned: 

1. A campaign was to proceed by the way of Cumberland, 
Maryland, across the divide, attack and capture Fort Duquesne, 
and stop the advance of the French at the head of the Ohio. 

2. A. campaign was to proceed through the Hudson and Mo- 
bawk Valleys to Oswego and Niagara. 

3. It was also decided that an army should proceed up Lake 
Champlain, capture Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and 
lay siege to Quebec. 

4. A naval expedition was to be directed against the French 
towns in the northeast, the English hoping thereby, to hold back 
troops that otherwise might go to the defense of Quebec. 

173. Braddock's Defeat (1775) . 56 — [Plate No. 3.] General 
Braddock, who was commander in chief of the English and 
colonial forces, undertook the first and most important of these 
expeditions. His soldiers, after a great deal of suffering, were 
able to cut a road through the heavy timber, until they were with- 
in a few miles of Fort Duquesne. At this point they were at- 
tacked by a large force of French and Indians who were hid in 
ambush. Washington had cautioned Braddock to be on guard 
against Indian surprises, and had suggested that the colonial 
forces be allowed to fight the French and Indians in Indian style ; 
but, contrary to this advice, Braddock after the English fashion 
held his forces in solid column where they were mowed down 
mercilessly by the French and Indian bullets. Braddock 57 was 

56 The Virginians, by Thackeray. 

57 On July 9, 1755, General Braddock with his army, composed mainly of 
veteran English troops, passed into an ambuscade formed by a far inferior 
body of French and Indians. The Virginia provincials, under Washington, 
alone saved the army from complete ruin. Braddock was mortally wounded 
by :■ provincial named Fawcett. A brother of the latter had disobeyed the 
up cis of Braddock, who had commanded that the troops should not take 
portion behind trees and was struck down by the general. Fawcett. see- 
ing h ; s brother thus killed by Braddock, immediately drew up his rifle and 
shot Braddock through the lungs, partly from revenge, and partly as a 
measure of salvation to the army which was under Braddock's command. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 



107 



mortally wounded — perhaps by one of his own men — and carried 
from the field. [See note 57.] Washington, who was next in 
command, was able to re-organize the army and conduct an order- 
ly retreat. This defeat left the frontier wholly unprotected. 

174. The Removal of the Acadians.' 8 — [Plate No. 3.] It will 
be remembered that at the close of Queen Anne's War, England 
came in possession of Nova Scotia, which, to the French, was 
known as Acadia. The inhabitants of Acadia were a class of 
ignorant, simple-minded, and industrious French peasants, who 
could not understand that they should no longer aid the French 
but were subjects of the king of Enlgand. After bearing with 
these people for many years, the English decided to remove them 
from their homes and scatter them throughout the English col- 








RUINS AT CROWN POINT 



onies. About five weeks before the capture of Fort Duquesne, 
an English officer arrived at Grand Pre, and requested all the men 
and boys to assemble in the churches to hear the reading of a 
notice from the English king. As soon as the simple natives were 
congregated in the churches, they were surrounded by English 
soldiers, and were notified that they were to be removed from 
their homes. These people were crowded into the British ships, 
and although the English did their best not to separate families, 
yet this was impossible. The Aeadians were scattered from 
Massachusetts to Georgia, many being separated from their 
friends and kindred forever. 



ss Evangeline, by Longfellow. 



108 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

175. Crown Point and Fort Ticonderoga. — At the close of the 
first two years of the war, the French were masters, not only of 
the Great Lakes but also Lake Champlain. Situated at the head 
of Lake Champlain, were the strong forts of Ticonderoga and 
Crown Point. The two armies met south of Lake Champlain, 
where the English were able to repulse the French but they did 
not follow up their victory. Instead they built Fort William 
Henry at the head of the lake, and two years later the brilliant 
French General Montcalm captured this fort and nearly all of the 
English were massacred by the Indians. 

176. Louisburg. — [Plate No. 3.] In 1757 General Loudon at- 
tempted the capture of Louisburg, but was unsuccessful. How- 
ever, the next year, the English with a naval force of forty-one 
vessels and a land force of ten thousand, were able to capture this 
very important point. The fort was dismantled, and the city of 
Halifax became, to the English, a point of rendezvous. 

177. William Pitt.— [Plate No. 3.1 In the meantime, the 
Seven Years' War had broken out in Europe, and as usual. 
France and England were opposed to each other. The govern- 
ment of England at this time was very corrupt, and the English 
nation was in such despair that the people turned out their 
worthless and corrupt ministers, and William Pitt became the 
head of the government. Under his inspiring leadership, not 
only England, but the colonies were soon placed on a strong 
footing. The weak and unworthy generals, who up to this time 
had had control of the colonial forces, were superseded by more 
able and worthy men. Amherst and Wolfe were, as mentioned 
above, able to reduce and capture Louisburg in July. 1758. 
During the same year. Colonel Bradstreet, who had taken charge 
of the colonial troops, captured Fort Frontenac, with nearly all 
the food stuffs and supplies for the French army. The student 
will remember that the French were not an agricultural people. 
but had to depend upon the mother country for all their sup- 
plies. Thus the capture of Fort Frontenac left the rest of the 
French forts with no supplies whatever. Later in the year, on 
account of the loss of these food stuffs and supplies, Washington 
was able to capture Fort Duquesne, which was re-named Fort 
Pitt after the. illustrious Wm. Pitt. Thus by the close of the 
year, the St. Lawrence River, the gateway of New France, was 
in possession of the English. 

1 78. Other English Victories.— | Plate No. 3. ] The results of 
the vear 175!) were even more favorable to the English than 



PERIOD OP COLONIZATION 



109 




those of the preceding year. In July the French abandoned 
both Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Niagara, also, after with- 
standing the horrors of a long and well directed siege, was 
forced to surrender to the English ; but the crowning victory of 
the entire war, and, as Green in his History of England says, 
"The battle which marks the beginning of the history of the 
United States," was the battle fought on the Plains of Abraham 
before the city of Quebec, by two of the most intelligent and able 
generals ever sent to the Western Continent by foreign nations. 

17!). The Storming of Quebec 50 
(1759). — [Plate No. 3.] Wolfe-Mont- 
calm. — After the fall of Louisburg. 
the only French fortification left in 
the New World was that of Quebec. 
The capture of this important point 
was given into the hands of General 
Wolfe, who sailed up the St. Law- 
rence Kiver and then proceeded to lay 
siege to the city. The lower city was 
soon destroyed, but the more protect- 
ed part of the city, as well as the 
forts, were situated upon a high cliff 
between the St. Lawrence and St. Charles Rivers. It will there- 
fore be noticed, by looking at the map, that Quebec is protected 
on three sides by water, while on the fourth side rises to a great 
height a nearly perpendicular rocky cliff. This cliff was thoughl 
by the French to be insurmountable. On July the 31st, Wolfe 
attacked the French, but was driven back with a loss of five 
hundred men. It now seemed as though 
he must give up the siege, when ac- 
cidentally there was discovered a path 
leading up this cliff. On September the 
12th, the English proceeded to embark 
and ascend the river. Protected by the 
darkness of the night, the forces man- 
aged to ascend this path, and in the 
morning Montcalm was surprised to see j 
the English army arranged, in line of 
battle, on the Plains of Abraham. The 
French rushed to the attack. The Eng- 
lish held their fire until the French were gen. montcalm 



GENERAL WOLFE 




59 Wolfe and Montcalm, by Parkman. 



110 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

within forty yards of them, when volley after volley was 
poured into the French ranks, followed immediately by a ter- 
rible charge of bayonets and broadswords. The French could 
not withstand the terrible slaughter, and fled from the field. 
The English had won the battle, and the French had lost their 
bold in the western continent. 




DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE, BY BENJAMIN WEST 
In Grosvenor Gallery, London 



At the beginning of the battle, both Montcalm and Wolfe 
were mortally wounded. While Wolfe was being carried to the 
rear, he heard cheers of victory, and upon asking what it meant, 
was told "The French run." He replied, "Now God be praised, 
I die happy." Montcalm on being told that he must soon die, 
replied, "So much the better. I shall not be able to see the sur- 
render of Quebec." 

180. Treaty of Paris. — In 1760 Montreal, the only other point 
of note which the French held, was surrendered to the English. 
In 1763 a treaty of peace was signed in Paris, and by it France 
gave to England all Canada except the two small islands of St. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 1 1 1 

Pierre and Miquelon. Besides this, she gave to England all her 
territory east of the Mississippi, except a very small area near 
the mouth of the river. She also ceded to Spain all her territory 
west of the Mississippi. During this war, England had also 
captured Havana on the island of Cuba, and gave this city to 
Spain in exchange for her possession in Florida. 

181. Pontiac's Conspiracy. " — In 1760, the same year that 
Montreal surrendered to the English, Major Rogers was sent 
into the lake country to help drive out the French. Here he 
met Pontiac, an able Ottawa chief, who had been a firm friend 
of the French. Pontiac was a very shrewd man and evidently 
saw that the French were to lose in this great war. He therefore 
received Major Rogers on very friendly terms. However, he im- 
mediately formed a conspiracy against the English, and all the 
English posts were attacked upon the same day. Nearly all the 
forts fell into the hands of the Indians, and the soldiers, includ- 
ing the women and children, were brutally murdered. This war 
continued at intervals for three years. Then Pontiac seeing that 
the British had too many soldiers and guns for him, made a 
treaty of peace. Later he was killed by one of his own people 
while making a speech to the Illinois Indians. Although Pontiac 
was cruel and used the shrewdness and sagacity of the Indians 
while fighting the English, yet we must admit he was brave. 
wise, and a patriotic Indian chief, and doubtless in his wisdom 
foresaw the ultimate extinction of his race. His body lies buried 
somewhere beneath the streets or buildings of St. Louis, where 
the countless millions continually trample his ashes underneath 
their feet, as if yet fearful that his undying spirit might arrest 
their onward progress. 



so Last of fhe Mohicans, by Cooper. 



HOME LIFE, SCHOOL ADVANTAGES, AND LITERATURE 

182. Physiography. — Before taking up the study of the Rev- 
olutionary War it is well that the student should become ac- 
quainted to some extent with the social and political conditions 
of the colonies, it being near the period of the beginning of our 
national existence. 

The physiography of the county naturally divides the colonies 
into three different sections, the middle section being bounded 
on the south side by the Chesapeake Bay, and on the northern 
by the Hudson River. The northernmost of these sections was 
noted for its heavy forests and many fine harbors, while in the 
southern section the rivers were short and sluggish, but the 
land very level and fertile and suited in every way for cultiva- 
tion. 

183. Character, Occupation and Distribution of Popula- 
tion.' 11 — These natural conditions, to a great extent, determined 
the distribution, character and mode of life of the colonists in 
the different sections. In the north, cities began to spring up 
around the natural harbors. Ship-building, fishing, spinning, 
weaving, and other commercial pursuits soon became the chief 
occupation of the people. This section was settled by a sturdy 
and self-reliant class of people, who had come to the New World 
prepared to undergo many hardships. Besides these character- 
istics, they were a people skilled in all the different pursuits of 
life and were otherwise held together by their religious creeds. 
They soon built up a profitable commercial trade w 7 ith the West 
Indies. In New England, owing to the natural conditions, as 
well as the commercial pursuits followed by the people, omitting 
Hi*- few house servants we find practically no slaves or ser- 
vants. 

In the southern section, land being very fertile and produc- 
tive, the colonists soon turned their attention chiefly to agri- 
culture. The rivers formed a convenient highway by which 
they might ship their grain and products. Soon large planta- 
tions were established, each plantation becoming the home of a 

11 Bancroft, History of the United States (last revision), vol. iii. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 113 

rich planter, who was surrounded by his slaves and indentured 
servants. While each of the southern colonies had its capital, 
yet the cities did not become commercial centers like the cities 
of New England. 

The middle section to a certain extent possessed not only ex- 
cellent harbors, but great river systems. The colonists in this 
section were a far more aristocratic class and resembled very 
closely the nobility of Europe. The rich land owners of New 
York lived in their large manor houses, and the aristocrats of 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware lived in much the 
same style. However, although the estates were large in this 
section, yet owing to the religious and moral opinions of the 
people, as well as the other social and natural conditions, we 
find but few slaves. 

The population at this time was nearly two and one-half mil- 
lion, and nearly one-half of the entire population was found in 
the southern section. However, it must be remembered that 
there were probably five hundred thousand African slaves, be- 
sides the indentured servants, in the southern section at this 
time. 

184. Class Distinctions. — The class or social distinction was 
probably less evident in New England than in the other two sec- 
tions. However, even here, as in other colonies, we may readily 
find four distinct classes. In the southern colonies the aristo- 
cratic class was composed of owners of large estates. In the 
middle section this class was composed of rich English traders, 
including some of the old Dutch families, as well as the rich 
Quaker families. In the northern section, the same class of peo- 
ple was composed of men of wealth, education and official posi- 
tion. 

The next lower class included all the common people, and in 
the south this class included the small farm owners and store- 
keepers. These people were very often rude, uneducated and 
immoral, although we find among them people of real worth. 
In the middle and northern sections this same class of people 
were composed of owners of small farms, merchants, and trades- 
men. They were practically the same class of people as in the 
south, except that they were generally a good, clean, moral, and 
educated class. 

In the southern and middle sections the two lower classes of 
people were composed respectively of the indentured servants 
and the slaves, while in New England, these classes were repre- 



114 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

sented respectively by the poorer class of mechanics and ser- 
vants. 

185. Religion. — Since many of our colonies were settled by 
religious exiles from foreign nations we may, generally speak- 
ing, say that the colonists were a profoundly religious people. 
In the Old World each nation had its own established religion. 
All other sects were punished and oftentimes banished. These 
people naturally turned to the New World and settled where 
they could worsbip according to the dictates of their own 
conscience. It is probable that the people who settled New 
England were more attentive to.their religious creeds than those 
farther to the south. They even became so intolerable in their 
religious beliefs, that they did exactly those things which had 
caused them to leave their native country. They punished, im- 
prisoned, banished, and even executed those who were not of 
their own religious belief. Yet we must remember that Rhode 
Island maintained religious toleration, and therefore became 
the home of many sects. The Congregationalists and Episcopal- 
ians were the strongest in New England. 

The middle colonies were not so strict in their religious creeds 
as the New England. Religious toleration was the general rule. 
although the Catholics were not allowed to hold office except in 
Pennsylvania. In these colonies, we find the Church of England. 
a few Roman Catholics, Congregationalists, Quakers, the Dutch 
Reformed, Lutherans, Methodists, and Scotch Presnyterians. be- 
sides many other smaller sects. 

In the south on account of the mode of life — the planters liv- 
ing at a distance from each other — religion and education were 
sadly neglected. One writer has given us his opinion of the re- 
ligious conditions of Maryland and Virginia, as follows: 

'The lives of the planters in Maryland and Virginia are very 
godless and profane. They listen neither to God nor his com- 
mandments and have neither church nor cloister. Sometimes 
there is some one who is called a minister. You hear often that 
these ministers are worse than anybody else. yea. are an abom- 
ination." 

Oftentimes the clergy of these colonies were not only ungodly 
men, but they were illiterate, reckless, careless, and in no way 
tit to lead or instruct the people in moral and religious creeds. 

186. Education, 1 ' l — About the same attention was given to ed- 



aialt will be of interest to the modern generation of American children 
to know what hooks the children of the Revolutionary period and 20 years 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 115 

ucation as religion. In New England, as soon as the colonists 
had built their houses and churches, they built their school 
houses and immediately made arrangements for the education 
of their children. Here the general system of schools was sup- 
ported by the government, and before the first half of the sev- 
enteenth century had passed the laws of Massachusetts made it 
imperative that every town consisting of fifty families should 
have a common school, and that every town of one hundred fam- 
ilies or more should support a grammar school of a standard 
which would admit its graduates to Harvard College. 

Education was not generally encouraged in the middle colon- 
ies. While academies and private schools were established, yet 
many of the people lived without educational facilities. While 
New York was under the Dutch rule, a school was established 
and maintained in almost every town, but when the English cap- 
tured New York, the schools were neglected. The first school 
which was opened to both girls and boys, was established in 
Philadelphia, and was called the Penn Charter School. To this 
school the poor were admitted free, while the wealthy class had 
to pay tuition. 

In the south the education of the young was sadly neglected. 
Private tutors were engaged by the wealthier families, while 
others sent their children to the northern institutions or lit Eng- 
land. Governor Berkeley fairly describes the condition, during 
his control of the colonies, in the following quotation : 

"I thank God there are no free schools, no printing presses, 
and I hope we shall not have these hundred years: for learning 
has brought disobedience into the world, and printing has di- 
vulged them and libels against the best government." 

At the time of the Revolutionary War. there were in the col- 
onies at least several colleges which compared wry favorably 
with those of the mother country. These colleges were generally 
under the control of some religious denomination. 

Harvard College was founded at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
in 1636, and is the oldest college in the United States. Many of 
our greatest men, who have won prominence in both this country 
and in the Old World, received their education in this college. 



earlier studied in school. The Salem Gazette (1790), gives the list: "The 
School Committee in Boston have ordered that the following' books be used 
in the Beading Schools of that town, viz: The Holy Bible; Webster's 
Spelling-Book ; The Young Ladies ' Accidence; Webster's American Selection 
of Lessons in Beading and Speaking; The Children's Friend; Morse's 
Geography abridged; and The Newspapers, occasionally." 



116 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

William and Mary 's College was established at Williamsburg, 
Virginia, in 1691. Most of the southern people who were not 
educated abroad received their education in this college. 

Yale at New Haven, Connecticut, was established in 1701. 
It is stated that ten Congregational ministers established the 
college library, and one of these, Elihu Yale, who became a very 
firm friend of the college, has the honor of having the institution 
named after him. 

Princeton University was founded in 1746, and the University 
of Pennsylvania, and Columbia College, the first college in New 
lork City, were both founded in the year 1755. 

Brown University was established at Warren, Rhode Island, 
by the Baptists in 1764. Later, in 1770, this college was re- 
moved to Providence. 

Besides these important educational institutions, there were 
several other smaller ones founded before the Revolutionary War, 
among which were Queen's College, founded by the Dutch Re- 
formed Church in Brunswick, N. J., and Dartmouth in 1769 at 
Hanover, New Hampshire. 

187. Libraries, Literature, Postoffices, and Mail. — At the 
time of the Revolutionary War, there were very few public 
libraries in the colonies, and these were mostly the libraries that 
were in the different colleges. Several fine libraries were owned 
by individual persons, but these were not open to the public. 61b 
Very few books were printed in the colonies, and as most of the 
books had to be imported, they were very expensive. The books 
that were to be found in the libraries were treatises on law, or 
books given to the discussion of religious and moral topics. 
There were few books which were designed for the cultivation of 
the imagination. The school books of this period seem crude and 
ridiculous to the student of today. However, there were many 
pamphlets printed, in which were discussed not only religious 
subjects, but political subjects as well. These pamphlets 
proved to be of great value to the colonists, as they furnished 
a means by which the people were educated about the political 
situation of those times. Washington Irving had ah'eady 
achieved some success in literature by his chaste and picturesque 
tales and sketches. 

The first newspaper was published in Boston about the year 
1704. and at the beginning of the Revolutionary War it is esti- 

eib Benjamin Franklin established the first free public library in the 
United States. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 



117 



mated that there were not over thirty-seven newspapers printed 
in the colonies. The first daily newspaper did not appear until 
after the Revolution. The printing presses used for printing 
these pamphlets and newspapers were hand presses, which made 




FRANKLIN'S PRINTING PRESS 



the art of printing a very slow and laborious business and as 
paper was very expensive, the newspapers as well as the type 
were necessarily very small. 

The postoffiee was established during William and .Mary's 
reign about the year 1738. In the country towns it consisted 
chiefly of a large drawer and a few rough boxes in which the 
mail was allowed to accumulate. In fact, there was no real sys- 



L18 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tern in the management of the post offices until Benjamin Frank- 
lin was appointed deputy postmaster general in 1753. Frank- 
lin at once reorganized the entire postal system. He laid out 
regular mail routes and established a schedule for the delivery 
and departure of the mails. Some of the rules which were in- 
stituted by Franklin, such as the advertising of uncalled for 
letters, are still in practice. Our present postal system may be 
said to have originated with the appointment of Benjamin 
Franklin as postmaster general. 

The mail was not sent out every few hours or every day, as it 
is today, but instead it was allowed to accumulate until a suffi- 
cient amount had collected to pay the postman for his services. 
The mail was generally carried on horseback by post-riders who 
followed the main roads as far as possible, then took the buffalo 
or Indian trails, or made their way as best they could through the 
forests. The remote settlements and the southern colonies were 
not as fortunate as the more northern colonies, as they seldom 
received their mail more frequently than once a month. The 
newspapers were not carried by the regular post-riders but were 
delivered by special arrangement. 




GEO. WASHINGTON FIRE ENGINE 
Presented to the city of Alexandria, Virginia, by Geo. Washington 

188. Home Life and Domestx Customs.'- — The home life of 
the colonists of this period was suited to their restricted condi- 
tions, as well as to their strenuous life. However, the aristo- 
cratic and wealthier classes in all the colonies lived in very 
grand style. In New England there were evidences of consider- 
able wealth and luxury to be found in the houses of the prosper- 

02 The Colonies UB2-1150, by Thwaites. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 



119 



ous rich. The architecture and furniture was of the style which 
today is known as the colonial, and the homes were noted for 
their hospitality, as well as their display of the artistic. 

In the southern colonies we have some real pictures of the 
ideal and luxurious colonial life. The great "baronial halls" 
with their rich tapestries and furnishings, made more beautiful 
by the bright glow from the large open tire-places, with the 
house slaves and indentured servants hurrying hither and thith- 
er, solicitous to the least whim or caprice of their master, must 
have appealed to travelers and friends, as an ideal home, where 
the rich planters lived a life of splendor and ease. 

In the middle colonies we find the wealthy proprietors living 
on their tine estates along the Hudson in the summer time, while 
in the winter, they moved into their commodious and richly 
furnished dwellings in the cities. The splendor and hospitality 
of the southern homes hardly equalled the cultured display of 
wealth and refinement which was here so apparent. 

The aristocratic class in all the colonies generally wore clothes 
which had been imported from the mother country. The men 
had both morning and evening costumes of the richest fabrics, 
which were trimmed with glittering and golden laces. They 
must have made a fine appearance with their powdered wigs, 
silken stockings, golden knee buckles, and dress suits. The 
ladies appeared in their high heel shoes and their gowns of satins 
and laces, while diamond hair ornaments and necklaces of pearls 
and diamond shoe buckles placed them in the same catalogue 
with their finely garbed husbands. 

The more common class of people lived in small wooden or log 
houses. In the day time the sun-light came 
in through the open door or through the one 
or two small windows while at night the 
rooms were lighted from the fire in the fire- 
place or by a candle or candle-lantern. These 
homes were usually built in groups for mu- 
tual protection. The principal rooms were 
the kitchen and best room. In the kitchen 
was a huge fire-place and oftentimes the huge 
logs which were used for fuel were drawn in- 
to the house by horses or oxen. The cook- 
ing was done over this fire. The huge crane 
was swung into the fire-place, and the pots 
suspended by pot-hooks, containing vegeta- 
bles, game, or salt pork, disclosed the simple colonial laxterx 




120 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

manner in which our colonial forefathers prepared their food. 
Apples and potatoes were roasted in the ashes and coals. The 
bannocks and Johnnie cake were prepared in the dutch ovens, 
or baked on a hot flat stone or on a flat slab which was placed 
near the fire. Yet although this food was simple and crude, it 
was very wholesome, and today we envy our forefathers these 
wholesome dishes. 

The clothes of the more common people were composed of the 
coarsest material. The men were generally clothed in leather 
breeches, heavy cow-hide boots, and coats and caps were made 
from the coarse homespun or the fur of wild animals. On Sun- 
day the boots and leather breeches received an extra coat of 
grease or oil, and the shoes were decorated with large and well 
burnished brass buckles, while large brass buttons furnished 
the decorations for the bomespun or fur waistcoats. 




CONESTOGA WAGON 



189. Modes of Travel. 63 — Our forefathers were not as for- 
tunate as we are today, with our luxurious and commodious 
conveniences of travel. They traveled much the same as the 
Romans, who were nearly two centuries their predecessors. 
Most of their journeys were made on foot or by horseback. The 
rude but substantial conestoga wagon and two wheeled chaises 
were used on the stage lines between the large cities, while the 



es Madam Sarah Knight, in Dames and Daughters of Colonial Days, by 
Geraldine Brooks. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 121 

longer and more arduous journeys were made by water in boats 
which were crude and uninviting. 

While taverns were to be found at the principal stopping 
places, and in most of the country towns and cities, yet they 
were not to be compared with our hostelries of today. A rough 
and uncouth class of people generally had charge of these public 
places, and the food was oftentimes coarse and unpalatable. 

The travel by land was always a great hardship, and no one 
knew when leaving on a journey when or in what condition he 
would arrive at his destination. Ladies seldom left their own 
immediate neighborhood. It has even been stated that no man 
dared to venture twenty miles beyond his own neighborhood 
until the church had offered up prayers for his safety. A few 
years before the Revolutionary War, it became necessary for a 
certain colonial ladj r to go from Boston to New York on business 
and it is interesting to read the diary kept by this lady. Many 
of the tavern keepers would not allow her the hospitality of 
the house because she was not accompanied by a male relative. 
It was with great difficulty that she was able to make the trip 
to New York and return in five months, and we can imagine 
with what interest and sympathy her friends gathered around 
her and listened to the rehearsal of her experiences. 

190. Colonial Money. — Most of the business during the col- 
onial period was carried on by barter. However, at some time 
in the history of the colonies, almost every conceivable thing of a 
useful nature, from a dried slab of cod-fisb to cattle and horses, 
was used as a medium of exchange. In some places the taxes 
were paid in cattle and it is stated that the cattle which were 
brought in payment of taxes were "something wonderful to 
behold." Of course the currency of the mother country was 
used to a great extent; also the Spanish coins were in general 
circulation. In 1652 a mint was established in MassachuxH ts 
but was discontinued in 1658. The money issued by this mint 
was known as the "Pine Tree Currency." All the colonies, at 
different times, issued a paper currency which was used quite 
extensively up until the Revolutionary War. 

191. Julian Calendar Dropped. — In the year 46 B. C, Julius 
Caesar decided to make the civil year coincide with the solar 
year as nearly as possible. His mathematicians decided that 
by making the civil year consist of 365 days and six hours, the 
solar and civil year would be so nearly equal that there would lie 
in the new style reckoning no perceptible difference. They there- 



122 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

fore added one day to the month of February every four years. 
Later it was discovered that there was so much dif- 
ference between the civil and solar year that the seasons did 
not even coincide. Therefore, in 1582, Pope Gregory XIII, 
in order to remove and avoid the ambiguities in chronological 
dates, changed the year to 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 
seconds, and in order to correct the error which already existed, 
lie dropped out ten days so that the day October 4, 1582, was 
reckoned and called October 14, 1582. This is what is meant 
in history as "old style and new style reckoning."' Thus such 
years which are divisible by four, except those divisible by ten 
and not divisible by 400, contain 366 days. All other years con- 
tain 365 days. This is what is known as the Gregorian calendar, 
and it is so nearly accurate that there will be no error amounting 
to even a day until about the year 5200. This new style calendar 
was adopted by the Catholic nations, but on account of religious 
prejudice, the Protestant nations were very slow in accepting 
it. However, Parliament in 1752 adopted the Gregorian calen- 
dar. Russia still reckons her time under the Old Julian Calen- 
dar, and the error is now something like thirteen days between 
the Julian and the solar year. 

192. Colonial or Civil Government in the Colonies. — The gov- 
ernment in the colonies may be divided into three different sec- 
lions — local, central, and that concerned with the relations of 
the colonies and the mother country. 






1& ft *® 



CRIMINALS IN STOCKS 



The local government was also divided into three different 
divisions. That of New England was known as the town or 
township system, as it was almost a purely democratic form. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 



123 



In Virginia arid the southern colonies, the county was taken 
as the unit of local government, and the people were more indi- 
rectly represented than New England. This system, however, 
created many strong political leaders, many of whom Ave shall 
soon read about in our study of the Revolutionary War. 

In the middle colonies between New England and Virginia 
the third system grew up which was probably the most influen- 
tial of all. This system was a mixture between the township 
and county system. Here the county was governed by a board 
of supervisors consisting of a representative from each town or 
township. These supervisors were chosen by the free men. 
Tins is much the same system as is in vogue now in the north, 
central and extreme western parts of our country. 

193. Severe Punishments. 04 — The laws which were enforced 

by the local governments in the 
different colonies were very se- 
vere. There were more than a 
dozen crimes for which capital 
punishment was inflicted, and 
generally punishments were in- 
flicted in public places, so that 
criminals were subject to all sorts 
of humiliation from spectators. 
The branding-iron. ducking- 
stools, whipping posts, pillory, 
cropping knife, masks and stocks 
were in common use in the differ- 
ent colonies, and punishments 
were oftentimes extremely hard 
and cruel for very insignificant 
offences. 

The central government was 
also divided into three divisions, 
known as the royal, proprietary, 
charter or republican. The first 
pillory of new England class belonged to Georgia, South 
Carolina. North Carolina, Virginia, New York, Massachusetts, 
Xew Hampshire, and New Jersey; the second class belonged to 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland; and the third class 
belonged to Connecticut and Rhode Island. Throughout the 

04 See "Old Standards of Public .Morals.'' by .John Bach McMaster, in 
Annual Be port of American Historical Society, 1905, vol. i. 




124 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

colonies, however, there was a general similarity of government 
and each colony excepting Pennsylvania was represented by the 
two houses of legislature. 





*J3 

■ j ~ m """w'"A*„ >v ,:.(.'''- - * 



THE DUCKING STOOL 



The last division, which had to do with the relations between 
the colonies and the mother country, was the most important 
of all the colonial forms of government. Here the relations 
were very indefinite. These relations will be taken up and 
discussed in the causes of the Revolutionary War, when the 
student may become more familiar with this division of our 
colonial government. 



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PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION' 

1°4. England's Colonial Policy; Growth of Democracy. — 
The causes which led to the Revolutionary War were very num- 
erous. Without doubt England was more liberal than any 
other nation in her dealings with her colonies. Yet we must 
remember that the people who settled the New World emi- 
grated from the different foreign nations, on account of some 
persecution or hardship which was administered or sanctioned 
by the home government. They had settled in this wild and 
unconquered country, in order that they might be free and 
enjoy the privilege of equality in both political and commercial 
pursuits, and although England was very liberal, yet the people 
were fearful lest they might be deprived of these rights and 
privileges. 

England, it must be remembered, in some respects treated her 
colonists as dependents and inferiors who occupied settlements 
in this distant land solely for the benefit and aggrandizement 
of the home government. The colonists had learned many les- 
sons during the "Inter-Colonial Wars;" they had grown up in 
an atmosphere of freedom and equality, and any infringement 
upon these rights was resented by them, as an improper attitude 
to be taken by the home government. 

We are safe in saying that the Revolutionary War was begun 
and fought for equality in both political and commercial rights. 
As the war progressed and England became more aggressive, 
the righteous indignation increased approximately, and al- 
though the time came when the mother country would gladly 
have given the colonists both political and commercial equality, 
the offer was refused. The colonists were now entirely alienat- 
ed and nothing short of complete and absolute political and 
commercial independence would be accepted. 

It will be interesting while studying the causes of the Revolu- 

65 Von Hoist, Constitutional Historu of the United States; Channing, 
United States, ch. i; Higginson, Larger History, eh. ix; Frothingham, Rise 
<>f the Republic, chs. i-iv; Leeky, American Revolution, pp. 1-49; Pitt, The 
Repeal of the Stamp Act; John Adams, 1 History of the Dispute with 
America; Franklin, The Caust of American Discontent, and Examination 
before the House of Commons. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 127 

tionary War, to watch the growth and development of this 
spirit of Independence. 

195. Navigation Acts and Acts of Trade.' — For over one 
hundred years prior to the opening of the Revolutionary War. 
England had by means of unjust laws deprived the colonists of 
the fruits of their labor. The English people had not yet ac- 
cepted that economic theory of Adam Smith, "that in a com- 
mercial transaction both parties may be benefited." On the 
contrary they formulated their commercial laws on the theory 
that in any commercial transaction whatever, one party gains. 
the other loses. 

While the operation of many of these navigation acts, it must 
be admitted, was in favor of the colonists, yet many of them 
were very distasteful and their operation pointed to ultimate 
disaster in colonial commercial lines. 

The first of the Navigation Acts was passed in 1651 during the 
reign of Cromwell, but was not enforced until 1660, when it was 
again re-enacted and enlarged. This ad required that mer- 
chandise to and from the colonies should be carried in English 
vessels, and furthermore ordered that all colonial products 
should be sold in ports belonging to England. In order thai 
English merchants might grow rich at the expense of the colon- 
ists, another act provided that all goods in transit from Europe 
or Asia, to the American colonies, must first be landed in Eng- 
lish ports and then reshipped to America in English vessels. 

Other acts were passed from time to time, among which was 
one providing that all goods imported to the colonies must be 
bought in English markets, providing the English merchants 
could furnish them, and finally in 1673, parliament forbade the 
carrying of imports in vessels belonging to New England. 

196. First Taxation Law and "Lords of Trade." — At this 
same time, 1673, a small duty was placed on articles which were 
shipped from one colony to another. This is the first of the 
many acts of parliament which were passed for the taxation of 
the colonies. In 1696 a new colonial council was created, com- 
monly known as the "Lords of Trade," whose duty it was among 
other things, to execute the navigation acts. These laws, nat- 
urally, were evaded in every way possible by the colonists ; 
smuggling was a common practice with the merchantmen : ships 

ee American History, Told by Contemporaries, vol. ii, by Hart; Th, 1'-, 
ginning of Neio England, by Fiske; Concise History of the American People, 
vol. i. by Patton and Lord. 



128 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

from France, Spain, and the Canaries traded directly with Bos- 
ton, their goods having never been landed in the ports of Eng- 
land; inter-colonial trade, by many, was carried on the same 
as if no laws existed. 

197. "Writs of Assistance."- -England on account of recent 
wars, was nearly bankrupt, and in order to raise money, decided 
to enforce the navigation acts if possible. To facilitate mat- 
ters, the king's revenue collectors and officers were armed with 
legal papers called "Writs of Assistance." These papers were 
very obnoxious to the colonists, as an officer when armed with 
this "Writ of Assistance" was empowered to enter any ware- 
house or dwelling and search for smuggled goods. The papers 
were very general in their nature and operation. The name or 
kind of goods need not be mentioned; the time of searching was 
not given; the papers could be used time and time again, and 
the officer could force any citizen to aid him in searching for 
these smuggled goods. In 1761 when the deputy in Salem 
applied to the court for these papers — "Writs of Assistance" — 
an objection was raised as to the legality of the same. 

198. James Otis and Writs of Assistance. — James Otis was 
advocate general at this time, and it became his duty to defend 
the legality of these papers. However, he was a true patriot, 
and rather than take the side he thought to be wrong, he re- 
sighed his office, and in the trial, he appeared in behalf of the 
colonists. 

In his wonderful argument before the court, it may be said, 
that he breathed the breath of life into the American Revolution 
in the following words: 

"May It Please Your Honors. I was desired by one of the 
court to look into the books, and consider the question now be- 
fore them concerning writs of assistance. I have accordingly 
considered it, and now appear, not only in obedience to your 
order, but likewise in behalf of the inhabitants of this town, who 
have presented another petition. . . And I take this oppor- 
tunity to declare, that whether under a fee or not (for in such a 
cause as this I despise a fee), T will to my dying day oppose with 
all the powers and faculties God has given me, all such instru- 
ments of slavery on the one hand, and villainy on the other, 
as this writ of assistance is. 

"Tt anpears to me the worst instrument of arbitrary power, the 
most destructive of English liberty . . . ever found in an 
English law-book. . . . T was solicited to argue this cause as 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 129 

Advocate General ; and because I would not, I have been charged 
with desertion from my office. ... I renounced that office, 
and I argue this cause, from the same principle ; and I argue 
it with the greater pleasure, as it is in favor of British liberty, 
. . . and as it is in opposition to a kind of power, the exercise 
of which in former periods of English history cost one King of 
England his head, and another his throne . . . my engaging 
in this and another popular cause has raised much resentment. 
But I think I can sincerely declare, that I cheerfully submit 
myself to every odious name for conscience' sake; . . . Let 
the consequences be what they will, I am determined to pro- 
ceed. The only principles of public conduct, that are worthy of 
a gentleman or a man, are to sacrifice estate, ease, health, and 
applause, and even life, to the sacred calls of his country. These 
manly sentiments, in private life, make the good citizen ; in 
public life, the patriot and the hero. I do not say, that when 
brought to the test, I shall be invincible. 

"I pray God I may never be brought to the melancholy trial ; 
but if ever I should, it will be then known how far I can reduce 
to practice principles which I know to be founded in truth. 
In the meantime I will proceed to the subject of this writ. 

" . . .1 deny that the writ now prayed for can be granted, 
... In the first place, the writ is universal, ... In the next 
place it is perpetual; there is no return. ... In the third 
place, a person with this writ, in the daytime, may enter all 
houses, shops, etc., at will and command all to assist him. Fourth- 
ly, by this writ not only deputies, etc, but even their menial 
servants, are allowed to lord it over us." 

John Adams, Works (edited by Charles Francis Adams, Bos- 
ton, 1850), II Appendix. 523-525. 

199. Patrick Henry 07 and the Parsons' Cause. — In 1748 a 
law had been passed fixing the salaries of the clergymen of the 
Episcopal church at sixteen thousand pounds of tobacco annual- 
ly. During the French and Indian War, the price of tobacco 
was very high, and the colonial treasury was almost empty; 
therefore, in 1755 and 1758, the prevailing distress caused the 
assembly to pass what is known as the "Optional" or "Two 
Pence" law. By this law the colonists might pay their public 
dues in money at the rate of two pence for every pound of to- 
bacco. This law was undoubtedly unsound, as it involved a 
partial repudiation of debts, but on account of the extreme dis- 

67 Wirt, Life of Patrick Henry. 




130 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tress, the clergy at first, as well as the laymen, acquiesced. How- 
ever, the price of tobacco began to rise 
and in order to test the legality of the 
law, the Rev. James Maury sued the 
colonists for the difference between 
the salary which he had received, and 
the money which he would have re- 
ceived by selling the sixteen thousand 
pounds of tobacco at the high market 
price. Sherlock, the bishop of Lon- 
don, had persuaded the king and coun- 
cil to veto the statute as unconstitu- 
tional, so the case virtually came to 
Patrick henry tr i al w i t h t \ ie pars0 ns and English 

government as plaintiffs, and the colonists as defendants. 

Patrick Henry, then a young man of twenty-seven years, was 
employed to defend the colonists. He was an uncultured, ob- 
scure, and unknown lawyer who had just been admitted to the 
bar. He at once admitted the unconstitutionality of the law, 
so in the case the jury were simply to decide the amount to be 
received by the Rev. Maury. Henry, in the course of his argu- 
ment, declared that Virginia could legislate for herself, and that 
as soon as a king disallowed acts of this nature, he began to 
degenerate into a tyrant. Cries of "Treason" came from all 
parts of the court room, but so wonderful was this young man's 
gift of eloquence and persuasion, that the jury brought in a 
verdict of only one penny damages. This was virtually a vic- 
tory for Henry and the colonists. The history of this case flew 
like wild-fire. Henry, who had thus placed his life in jeopardy, 
became the leader of his people, who chose him to represent 
thorn at the Virginia assembly. 

200. The Stamp Act and Taxation without Representation. 63 
— William Pitt, the one man who had been able to bring order 
out of chaos, during the French and Indian War, was succeeded 
by Lord George Grenville, and Charles Townshend, a tory, was 
made president of the lords of trade. Grenville at once con- 
cluded that there should be a strong army in America, and that 
the colonies should be taxed to support these soldiers and gar- 
risons. He desired to raise this revenue by indirect taxation, 
and planned to place revenue stamps on all legal documents. 

ss American History Leaflets, no. 21. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 131 

This act was passed by parliament on March the 8th, 1765. The 
colonists felt that a strong army was unnecessary and they in- 
sisted that taxation by parliament was illegal and unjust. The 
colonies did not object to the payment of the taxes so much as 
the method by which they were taxed. It was a fundamental 
principle of the English people that they should not be taxed 
but by their own consent or the consent of their representatives, 
and of course the colonies had no representative in the British 
Parliament. 

Franklin, while being examined before the English house of 

commons in February, 1766, gave 
the following answers to the questions 
put to him regarding taxation, which 
makes quite plain to us the position 
taken by the colonists on this import- 
ant subject. 

"I never heard any objection to the 
right of laying duties to regulate com- 
merce, but a right to lay internal tax- 
es was never supposed to be in parlia- 
ment, as we are not represented there. 
benj. franklin "Their opinion (the colonies) is, 

Portrait by bupiessis, from Mu- that when aids to the crown are want- 

seum of Fine Arts, Boston t ,i i i j a ,1 

ed, they are to be asked ot the various 
assemblies, according to the old established usages, who will, as 
they always have done, grant them freely. . . And they 
think it extremely hard and unjust, that a body of men. in 
which they have no representatives, should make a merit to 
itself of giving and granting what is not its own, but theirs." 

While these things were going on, 1765, Patrick Henry, who 
was now a member of the Virginia assembly, immediately in- 
troduced a seres of resolutions which denied explicitly and 
emphatically the right of parliament to tax the colonies. It 
was while supporting these resolutions that Henry gave utter- 
ance to the speech which once more brought the cries of treason 
upon his head. These resolutions did much to strengthen the 
cause of liberty throughout the colonies. 

201 The Stamp Act Congress. — Massachusetts now proposed 
the calling of a continental congress. This congress met in 
New York, October 7, 1765, with representatives from nine 
colonies, and they reported the protest and petition of Virginia 
and drew up a declaration of rights and grievances of the colon- 




.132 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ies in America. They declared that since the colonies were not 
represented in the house of commons of Great Britain, there- 
fore internal taxation cannot be levied except by their colonial 
assembly. Furthermore they asked parliament to repeal the 
stamp act. The proceedings of this congress were received 
with favor by the people, and "Taxation without Representa- 
tion is Tryanny," soon became the common slogan throughout 
the colonics. 

202. Repeal of the Stamp Act. — The people now began to 
act in unison, and every energy was put forth to evade, and if 
possible, to cause the repeal of the stamp act. The newspapers 
took up the cry ; ministers of the gospel exhorted their hearers 
on this subject ; idlers on the street discussed the question free- 
ly ; merchants signed agreements not to buy their goods of Eng- 
land while the act was in force; even women anxious to encour- 
age and foster the popular sentiments did all in their power to 
prevent the importation of English goods ; mobs assaulted the 
stamp officers, destroyed their property, and forced them to re- 
sign; in sonic places the stamps were even seized and burned, 
and organizations, such as the Sons of Liberty, were formed to 
arouse the public indignation; lawyers did without necessary 
Legal blanks; in some of the larger cities, even the homes and 
libraries of the officers of the king were burned and destroyed. 
Finally on November 1, 1765, the day when the act was to 
go into force, flags were placed at half mast ; bells were tolled ; 
business was suspended; and the day was observed as a day of 
mourning. 

Soon the merchants and manufacturers of England, whose 
trade with the colonies had been nearly ruined by this act, peti- 
tioned parliament to repeal the stamp act. Grenville was 
succeeded by the Marquis of Rockingham. Edmund Burke be- 
gan to espouse the cause of the colonies ; William Pitt, ever the 
friend of the colonies, again came forward in all his wonderful 
power, and finally on March the 18th, 1776, the stamp act was 
repealed, and the declaratory acts were passed in its stead. 

203. The Declaratory Acts. — Among other things the declar- 
atory acts stated : 

That the kintj and parliament had full power to make laws 
binding the American colonies in all cases whatsoever, and 
that the acts passed by the colonial assemblies denying to parlia- 
ment the power to tax the colonies were unlawful and revolu- 
tionary. 




From ii Painting by Rothermel 

PATRICK HENRY SPEAKING IN BEHALF OF HIS RESOLUTIONS A.GAINST 
THE STAMP ACT BEFORE THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES IN 1765 

It was during the exciting debate on his resolutions, as illustrated above, that Henry 
in one of his bursts of eloquence exclaimed, "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I bis 
Cromwell, and George III" — "Treason! Treason!" shouted some among whom was the 
speaker of the house. Henry fixing his eyes on the speaker continued, "may profit 
by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." 



134 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Therefore, these acts in no way helped the political situation 
between the colonies and the mother country, and the small 
relief, which was secured in a commercial way by the repeal of 
the stamp act, in no way pacified the colonists. The trouble 
between the mother country and the colonics now had reached 
the stage where principle could not be compared, by the colon- 
ists, with commercial values. 

204. The Townshend Acts. — The half crazed king, George III, 
was terribly wrought up over the repeal of the stamp act, and 
decided to tax the colonies regardless of their protestations. 
Charles Townshend, who was now chancellor of the exchequer, 
after advising with the king, persuaded parliament to pass sev- 
eral acts reviving the policy of Grenville. The first act sus- 
pended the assembly of New York because they would not 
furnish food and clothing to the British garrisons; the second 
act provided for the reinforcements of the acts of trade; bv 
the third, duties were placed upon glass, wine, painter's mate- 
rials, paper and tea, the revenue, derived from these duties, to be 
used to support the standing army and crown officers, who were 
to control affairs in the colonies. By a later act smuggling 
cases were tried before courts of admiralty without a jury. 
These laws were received with great disgust by the colonists, 
and everything possible was done to prohibit their being put in 
force. 

205. Letters of the Pennsylvania Farmer. — In 1768 there 
appeared a series of letters written by a very able and patriotic 
young lawyer by the name of John Dickinson, who assumed the 
guise of a farmer. In these letters Mr. Dickinson gave the 
people a very thorough discussion of the Townshend acts, and 
this did much to prepare them for the coming conflicts. The 
general trend of his letters will be inferred from a few extracts 
which are given below : 

"I hope, my dear countrymen, that you will in every colony 
be upon your guard against those who may at any time endeav- 
or to stir you up, under pretenses of patriotism, to any measures 
disrespectful to our sovereign and our mother country. Hot, 
rash, disorderly proceedings injure the reputation of the peo- 
ple as to wisdom, valour and virtue, without procuring them 
the least benefit. . . 

"Every government, at some time or other, falls into wrong 
measures; these may proceed from mistake or passion. But 
every such measure does not dissolve the obligation between 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 135 

the governors and the governed; the mistake may be corrected; 
the passion may pass over. 

"It is the duty of the governed to endeavor to rectify the mis- 
take, and appease the passion. . . For experience may teach 
them what reason did not ; and harsh methods, cannot be proper, 
till milder ones have failed. 

"If at length it becomes undoubted, that an inveterate resolu- 
tion is formed to annihilate the liberties of the governed, the 
English history affords frequent examples of resistance by 
force. . . Perhaps it may be allowable to say, generally, 
that it never can be justifiable until the people are fully con- 
vinced that any further submission will be destructive to their 
happiness. . . These considerations of justice and prudence 
will always have great influence with good and wise men. 

' ' To these reflections on this subject, it remains to be added, and 
ought forever to be remembered: that resistance in the case of 
the colonies against their mother country, is extremely different 
from the resistance of a people against their prince. . . 

' ' We cannot act with too much caution in our disputes. Anger 
produces anger; and differences that might be accommodated 
by kind and respectful behavior, may by imprudence be changed 
to an incurable rage. . . 

"If, however, it shall happen by an unfortunate course of af- 
fairs, that our applications to his majesty and the parliament for 
the redress, prove ineffectual, let us then take another step, by 
withholding from Great Britain all the advantages she has been 
used to receive from us. Then let us try, if our ingenuity, in- 
dustry, and frugality, will not give weight to our remonstrances. 
Let us all be united with one spirit in one cause. Let us invent ; 
let us work; let us save; let us at the same time, keep up our 
claims, and unceasingly repeat our complaints ; but above all, let 
us implore the protection of that infinite good and gracious Be- 
ing, 'by whom kings reign and princes decree justice.' 
"Nil desperandum. 
' ' Nothing is to be despaired of. 

"A FARMER," 

John Dickinson, Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, to 
the Inhabitants of the British Colonies (Boston, 1768), 30-35. 

206. The Bostonians have Trouble with the King's Soldiers. 
— Soon after the passage of the Townshend acts, 1768, the rev- 
enue commissioners which were provided for by these acts, ar- 
rived at Boston and without a legal warrant proceeded at once 



136 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to seize the sloop "Liberty," which belonged to John Han- 
cock, on an alleged violation of the revenue laws. On account 
of this act and other grievances serious trouble soon arose be- 
tween these officers and the colonists. King George III becom- 
ing alarmed, dispatched General Gage with several regiments 
of soldiers, who were to be garrisoned in the larger cities, where 
they would be subject to the immediate commands of the king. 
Two of these regiments were stationed in Boston, and it was not 
long until there was a general feeling of antipathy between the 
citizens of Boston and these soldiers. According to the acts 
passed by parliament, these soldiers should have been lodged in 
Castle William, situated on one of the little islands in the harbor, 
but instead General Gage saw fit to quarter them in Boston. In 
September, 1769, James Otis, who had so ably defended the 
colonists against the tyrannical writs of assistance, was as- 
saulted and struck over the head with a sword, by some army 
officials and a revenue commissioner. This cowardly act was 
committed at the Old Coffee House, and Mr. Otis who was al- 
ready in ill health was rendered ever afterwards insane. In 
February of the next year, a small boy of eleven years of age — 
Christopher Snyder, the first martyr of the Revolution — was 
wantonly shot and killed by one Richardson, a British tax col- 
lector. This act in itself, aroused the entire colony against 
General Gage, Lieutenant-Governor Hutchinson, and their sol- 
diers. 

207. The Boston Massacre. — [Plate No. L] Things went from 
bad to worse, until the climax "was reached on the evening of 
March 5, 1770, when a company of soldiers under Captain Pres- 
ton, w T ho had been called to the aid of a sentry, fired into a erow r d 
of citizens, who had congregated in King's street, killing five 
men and wounding several others. The citizens of Boston, pre- 
vious to this time, petitioned the governor, on several occasions, 
to remove the soldiers from the city, and on the next day, March 
6th, under the direction of an immense meeting which met at the 
Old South Church, a committee, one of which was Samuel Ad- 
ams, called on Hutchinson and in the name and behalf of three 
thousand citizens of Boston, demanded the immediate removal 
of the soldiers from the town. Before sunset not a single Brit- 
ish soldier could be found on the streets of Boston. 

208. Lack of Union in the Colonies. — Up to this time there 
had been no concerted plan of action or united opposition, on 
the part of the colonists, against the mother country. On the 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 137 

contrary there was even open hostility between some of the 
colonies. At this very time the colony of New Hampshire. 
with Ethan Allen and the "Green Mountain Boys," was carry- 
ing on a sort of guerilla warfare against New York, in order to 
get possession of the Green Mountains. The same contention 
was going on between the colonies of Connecticut and Pennsyl- 
vania over the ownership of the Wyoming Valley. There is no 
doubt that if, at this time, the home government had used good 
judgment, the colonies might have been reconciled. Nowhere 
as yet had the colonists agreed to unite on any one plan 
for their common protection. However, King George III seem- 
ed to be in no way concerned. He believed he might yet coerce 
the colonists into submission. 

209. The Virginian Resolutions, and the Non-Importation 
Agreement. 69 — In 1769 the Virginian resolutions were passed 
which not only condemned the policy of Great Britain, but rec- 
ommended the united action of the colonists against their com- 
mon foe. The governor immediately dissolved the assembly, but 
under the leadership of Washington, a set of resolutions were 
passed which forbade all importations from England until the 
Townshend acts were repealed. 

210. Tax Removed on all Articles Except Tea. — These res- 
olutions were adopted by nearly all the colonies, and the British 
merchants again finding their trade seriously interfered with. 
petitioned parliament to repeal the Townshend acts. Lord 
North, who had now become prime minister, in April, 1770, re- 
moved all duties except the duty on tea, which was retained in 
order to maintain the principle, that the mother country had the 
right to tax the colonists without their being represented in 
parliament. 

211. The Burning of the Gaspee. — [Plate No. 1.] Acting on 
the belief that the colonies would yet submit, the Gaspee, an 
English revenue vessel, was in 1772, stationed in Narragansett 
Bay, where she was to aid in enforcing the navigation acts. 
The captain of this vessel was not only foolish, but he was need- 
lessly cruel and harsh in many respects. The citizens near the 
coast w r ere robbed of their stock, provisions, and other necessa- 
ries of life, which were taken by the captain and his crew, and 
appropriated to their own use. The Gaspee running aground, 
was attacked by the settlers. The crew- was soon overpowered, 
and the vessel with all its contents was burned. 



G $ Hearts Courageous, by H. E. Rivers. 



138 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




SAMUEL ADAMS 



212. Committees of Correspondents. — In 1772, at a town- 
meeting held in Faneuil Hall, Bos- 
ton, Samuel Adams moved that a 
"Committee of Correspondents" be 
appointed in all the different towns 
throughout Massachusetts for the 
purpose of stating, as Adams said, 
"The rights of colonies and of this 
province in particular, to communi- 
cate and publish the same to the sev- 
eral towns in this province and to the 
world." In 1773 at the suggestion 
of Dabney Carr, the Virginia assem- 
bly passed a resolution that the com- 
mittee of correspondents be appoint- 
ed in all the colonies to communicate with each other. This 
proposition was favorably received, and soon committees of 
correspondents were appointed by all the colonies. These com- 
mittees not only reported to each other their grievances, but 
they also corresponded about methods by which they might re- 
sist the odious laws enacted by parliament. 

213. The Boston Tea Party. — As before stated, parliament 
had seen fit to remove the tax on all articles except tea, and it 
was supposed that since the tax on this article was very low, 
there would be no trouble regarding the sale of this article in 
the colonies. However, instead of doing what the British parlia- 
ment had expected them to do, the colonists smuggled the tea 
which they used from Holland. The East India Company had, 
at this time, a great deal of tea on hand, and the king and parlia- 
ment believed that they might be able to do by trickery, what 
they were unable to do by force. Therefore, the East India 
Company was allowed to ship tea directly to colonial ports with- 
out stopping and paying revenue at the English ports. Thus the 
duty on tea was reduced from five pence to three pence per 
pound. It was now thought that since the colonists could buy 
tea cheaper than even the people of England, there would 
be no more trouble. Consequently vessels containing tea were 
at once sent to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. 
However, the king and his counselors were disappointed, for in 
all these cities, except Boston, the colonists forced the consignees 
(the tea company's agents) to resign so when the tea arrived at 
these places, there was no one to receive it : at Philadelphia when 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 139 

the ship containing the tea arrived it was immediately sent back 
to England ; at Charleston the tea was landed, but as there was 
no one to receive it, it was stored in damp cellars and there 
spoiled. 

In Boston the first tea ship arrived on Sunday, and the com- 
mittee of correspondents (by threats and otherwise) made ar- 
rangements with the captain that the tea should not be landed 
until the next Tuesday. The consignees, among whom were the 
governor's sons, would not resign. Neither would the governor 
give his consent for the vessels to leave port and the revenue 
commissioners would not issue a certificate of clearance. 

At the end of twenty days the revenue commissioners were 
empowered to have the vessels unloaded by force. The citizens 
of Boston through the committee of correspondents received 
advice from all the nearby towns and colonies, and it was de- 
cided that the tea should not be landed. On the expiration of 
the twentieth day (which was the 16th day of December), seven- 
teen thousand people met at the "Old South Meeting House." 
The governor was again asked to issue a permit for the vessels 
to sail, but this was refused. As night stole over the city, a well 
organized and well behaved party of men, disguised as Indians 
(one of whom was Samuel Adams), went on board the ships and 
emptied into the sea the entire cargo of tea. 

Thus again King George and his parliament were not able, 
even by their political trickery, to force the colonists to pay 
the small revenue on tea. 

214. The Five Intolerable Acts, 1774. — On hearing the news 
of how the consignment of tea had been refused by the colonists, 
the king and his counselors became very angry. Parliament 
immediately passed what is known as the "Five Intolerable 
Acts." The first of these is known as the "Boston Port Bill." 
By this act, the port of Boston was closed, no vessels being al- 
lowed to either enter or leave port. The port was to remain 
clcsed until the people of Boston were starved, or otherwise 
forced into paying for the tea which had been destroyed. The 
second of these acts is known as the "Transportation Bill" 
which provided that persons charged with murder while en- 
gaged in enforcing the laws might be transported either to Eng- 
land or some other colony for trial. The third was known as 
the "Massachussets Bill" or "Regulation Act." This act re- 
voked the charter of Massachusetts, and placed the government 
under a military governor. The fourth is known as the 



140 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

"Quartering Act." It legalized the stationing or quartering of 
troops in the colonies. The fifth is known as the "Quebec 
Act ' ' or the ' ' Proclamation Line Act. ' ' By this act the govern- 
ment of the province of Quebec was reorganized so as to include 
all the English territory west of the Allegheny Mountains. It 
also provided for the free exercise of the Roman Catholic re- 
ligion in Canada, which, of course, was very distasteful to the 
colonists. The effect of these acts was disastrous to say the 
least. 

The "Boston Port Bill" was to go into effect on June 1st, and 
the day was observed as a day of fasting throughout the col- 
onies. Soon the people of Boston were on the verge of starva- 
tion. Everything possible was done, by the people of the other 
colonies, to relieve their suffering. 

215. The First Continental Congress, 1774.— The condition 
into which the colonies were thus placed soon became unbear- 
able, and not only Massachusetts but other colonies saw the need 
of immediate and united action. The Virginia house of bur- 
gesses at once proposed a general congress of the colonies. 
New York and Pennsylvania proposed that this congress meet 
in Philadelphia on September 1, 1774. The congress did not 
meet, however, until September 5th. Fifty-five delegates were 
present, all the colonies being represented except Georgia. 

The meetings of this congress were held in Carpenter's Hall, 
and among the delegates were such men as George Washington, 
Patrick Henry, Samuel and John Adams, Peyton Randolph, 
John Dickinson, and Thomas Jefferson. 

The delegates were directed to secure redress for Massachu- 
setts, to draw up a declaration of rights to be presented to the 
king and parliament. An agreement was also entered into, not 
to export or import, or to make use of any British goods. 

After professing loyalty to the king, they adjourned (October 
26th), having fixed the date of the next meeting for Mav 10, 
1775. 

216. John Hancock Recalls the Boston Massacre. — John Han- 
cock had by this time become one of the moving spirits in behalf 
of the. colonies. He was not only a man of great intelligence, 
but being a man of great wealth, he was also interested in the 
financial affairs of the colonies. In 1766, he became a member 
of the colonial legislature, and from that time his every effort 
was put forth in behalf of the colonists. On March 5, 1774, just 
four years after the Boston massacre, he delivered an oration. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



141 




JOHN HANCOCK 

From portrait by Copley, in Boston 

Museum of Fine Arts 



his subject being the "Boston Massacre." On account of this 

oration he was ordered to be ar- 
rested by the British authorities. 

A few quotations given below 
will give some idea of the effect of 
this oration on the colonists at this 
time : 

"Men, Brethren, Fathers, and 
Fellow Countrymen : The attrac- 
tive gravity, the venerable appear- 
ance of this crowded audience ; the 
dignity which I behold in the coun- 
tenances of so many in this great 
assembly; the solemnity of the oc- 
casion upon which we have met to- 
gether joined to a consideration of 
the part I am to take in the import- 
ant business of this day, fill me 
with awe hitherto unknown. . . 
But, allured by the call of 
some of my respected fellow citizens, with whose request it is al- 
ways my greatest pleasure to comply, I almost forgot my want 
of ability to perform what they required. . . Security to 
the persons and properties of the governed is so obviously the de- 
sign and end of civil government that to attempt a logical proof 
of it would be like burning tapers at noonday to assist the sun in 
enlightening the world ; and it cannot be either virtuous or hon- 
orable to attempt to support a government of which this is not the 
great and principal basis; and it is to the last degree vicious and 
infamous to attempt to support a government which manifestly 
tends to render the persons and properties of the governed inse- 
cure. . . I glory in publicly avowing my eternal enmity to 
tyranny. . . Here suffer me to ask (and would to heaven 
there could be an answer), what tenderness, what regard, re- 
spect or consideration has Great Britain shown in their late 
transactions, for the security of the persons or properties of the 
inhabitants of the colonies, Or rather what have they omitted 
doing to destroy that security? . . . They have exercised 
this pretended right by imposing a tax upon us without our 
consent; and lest we should show some reluctance at parting 
with our property her fleets and armies are sent to enforce their 
made pretensions. The town of Boston, ever faithful to the 
British crown, has been invested by a British fleet, the troops of 



142 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

George III have crossed the wide Atlantic, not to engage an 
enemy, but to assist a band of traitors in trampling on the rights 
and liberties of his most loyal subjects in America — those rights 
and liberties which, as a father, he ought ever to regard, and as 
a king he is bound in honor to defend from violations even at 
the risk of his own life. . . But I forbear, and come reluc- 
tantly to the transactions of that dismal night . . . when 
Satan with his chosen band opened the sluices of New England 's 
blood, and sacriligiously polluted our land with the dead bodies 
of her guiltless sons ! 

"Let this sad tale of death never be told without a tear; let not 
the heaving bosom cease to burn with a manly indignation at the 
barbarous story through the long tracks of future time; let 
every parent tell the shameful story to his listening children un- 
til tears glisten in their eyes and boiling passions shake their 
tender frames ; and whilst the anniversary of that ill-fated night 
is kept a jubliee in the grim court of pandemonium, let all Amer- 
ica join in one common prayer to heaven that the inhuman, un- 
provoked murders of the 5th of March, 1770, planned by Hills- 
borough and a knot of treacherous knaves in Boston, and ex- 
ecuted by the cruel hand of Preston and his sanguinary coad- 
jutors, may ever stand on history without a parallel. ' ' 

217. Massachusetts Organizes a Provincial Government- 
General Gage, who was now governor of Massachusetts, refused 
to recognize the legislature chosen by the people, but instead 
established a military form of government for the colony. The 
people declared that this military form of government, which 
was designed to secure protection to the colonists and their 
property, on the contrary had rendered insecure these rights 
and liberties. 

Following the resolution of Dr. Joseph "Warren, in the Suffolk 
county convention, the first Continental congress urged that 
all towns raise, organize and maintain a militia, which should 
be ready at any time to protect the interests of the colony. 

Acting on this recommendation Massachusetts at once organ- 
ized a provincial government, with John Hancock as president, 
and removed the place of the new government from Boston to 
Concord. A committee of safety was organized, and Dr. Joseph 
Warren was made chairman. This committee at once began 
the collecting of ammunition and other military stores at Salem. 
Concord, and other inland towns. Later a provincial militia, 
known as "Minute-men," was organized, whose duty, as stated 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



143 



above, was to be ready on a minute's notice to protect, by force, 
the rights of the colonists. 

218. General Gage Attempts to Capture Samuel Adams and 
John Hancock, and Destroy the Military Stores at Concord. — 
[Plate No. 4.] John Hancock and Samuel Adams were now 
both accused of high treason, and General Gage was ordered 
to arrest them and send them to England for trial. These gen- 
tlemen at this time were at Lexington, and General Gage thought 
that he would dispatch an army and not only capture them, but 
also destroy the military stores which had been collected at 
Concord. He laid his plans with great caution and secrecy. 
However, Dr. Warren and his "Committee of Safety" 70 became 
aware of the scheme, and on the night of April the 19th, while 
General Gage's soldiers were sailing up the Charles River, on 
their way to Lexington, Paul Revere and some of his comrades 
were traveling fast toward Lexington arousing all the "Minute- 
men" on their way. 

219. Battle of Lexington, April 19,1775.— [Plate No. 4.] AVhen 

the British soldiers reached Lex- 
ington, 71 the next morning, Han- 
cock and Adams, who had been 
warned of the approach of the 
British, were not to be found, and 
instead a company of "Minute- 
men" were drawn up in line of 
battle on the Lexington Common. 
Captain Parker demanded that the 
provincials disperse, and upon 
their refusal a sharp skirmish took 
place in which several of the col- 
onists were killed. The British 
then proceeded to Concord to de- 
stroy the military stores, but these 
had all been secreted, except a few 
hundred pounds of rifle balls, 
and a small amount of powder. 
These the British forces destroyed. By this time, the provincial 
militia were gathering from all directions. The British soon 
began to retreat toward Boston, but at every turn they were fired 

to Tales of a Wayside Inn, vol. i, by Longfellow; The True Story of 
Paul Revere, by Charles Ferris Gettemy. 
7i History of Lexington, by Hudson. 




PAUL REVERE 



144 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



They were completely routed, and prob- 
been 



upon by the colonists, 
ably all would have 
captured, had it not been 
that they were reenforced 
by twelve hundred soldiers 
under Lord Percy. As it 
was, they lost nearly two 
hundred and seventy-five 
soldiers. 

The effect of this battle 
was wonderful. It taught 
the British that they could 
not expect to subdue the 
American colonists with the 
small army then at hand. It 
also inspired new hope in 
the colonists who were now 
determined to fight for their 
rights. The provincial con- 
gress passed a resolution 
calling for an army of thirty 
thousand men. Delegates 
were sent to each of the oth- 
er colonies, asking their aid 
in raising this army. The Photograph by Voris 

UPOnlc rcsnondpd imrnpdiatp ^ This monument marks the spot where Paul 
]>tuptp IPhpunueu lUimtUldie- ReV ere was captured, by the British, while on 

l.V and SOOn twentV thousand llis wa . y to Concord and Lexington to inform 
.-, • the inhabitants of the approach of the British. 

men were on their way to 

Boston, where they were engaged in throwing up entrenchments 

around the entire city. 

220. Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, 1775.— [Plate 
No. 4.] Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake Champlain 72 
were considered the "Key to Canada," and as these forts also 
contained a vast amount of cannon and other military stores, 
the Massachusetts committee of safety suggested that an ex- 
pedition be organized for the purpose of capturing these places. 

72 Corporal Lige's Becruit, by Otis; With Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga, 
by W. Bert Foster; The Green Mountain Boys, by D. P. Thompson; Fight- 
ing around Ticonderoga, by C. T. Brady. (See his Colonial Fights and 
Fighters, 1907, pp. 263-86). American devolution, 2v. D., Boston, 1899, by 
Jonn Fiske. Capture of Ticonderoga, by Henry Ha]l; Surprise of Ticon- 
deroga, by M. P. A. Stansbury; Old Ticonderoga, House of the Seven 
Gahles and The Stone Image, by Nathaniel Hawthorne. 




PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



145 



Benedict Arnold, who was anxious to distinguish himself, was 
commissioned colonel, and was given authority to raise men 
and accomplish this feat. Hardly had he received his commis- 
sion, when he learned that Ethan Allen and his "Green Moun- 
tain Boys" were engaged in the same enterprise. He therefore 
set out immediately, and met Ethan Allen with about two hun- 
dred and seventy of his mountain soldiers near the head of Lake 
Champlain. He displayed his commission, and ordered Allen to 
surrender the command into his hands, but Allen and his "Green 
Mountain Boys" were used to doing much as they pleased, and 




Photograph by Yoris 
HOUSE, NEAR LEXINGTON, IN WHICH JOHN HANCOCK AND SAMUEL 
ADAMS CONCEALED THEMSELVES FROM THE BRITISH 



not only did Allen refuse to surrender his command, but the 
"Green Mountain Boys" refused to serve under the command 
of Arnold. Matters were finally compromised, and Arnold was 
allowed to accompany the army, retaining his colonel's commis- 
sion, but allowed in no way any command in the army. 

The following night, May the 10th, they reached the shore of 
the lake opposite Fort Ticonderoga, and securing all the boats at 
hand, Allen, accompanied by eighty-three of his men and Arnold, 
crossed over and landed near the fort. The boats were sent 
back to bring re-inforcements, but for fear of being detected, it 



146 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

was decided to attack the fort at once. Cautiously ascending 
the hill on which the fort was situated, they surprised and cap- 
tured it, including the entire British force, all the guns, ammuni- 
tion, and other military stores, without the firing of a single gun. 
Two days later, Seth. Warner, one of Allen's able lieutenants, 
captured Crown Point, taking sixty prisoners, two hundred can- 
nons, and a large supply of gunpowder. 

The effect of these achievements can hardly be over-estimated, 
as not only did these forts fall into the hands of the colonists, 
but what was even more important, the much needed munitions 
of war also came into their possession. 




THE SURRENDER OF FORT TICONDEROGA 



221. Washington Appointed Commander-in-Chief by the Sec- 
ond Continental Congress, June 15th. — On the same day Ticon- 
deroga was taken, the second Continental congress met. and 
after a completion of the preliminary business, they proceeded 
to elect John Hancock president. It now became apparent that 
decisive action must be taken at once, in order to protect Massa- 
chusetts as well as the rest of the American colonies. 73 

The two Adamses and Benjamin Franklin (who was at this 
time a member of the Continental congress) were the only mem- 

t z Leather Stocking Tales, by Cooper; True to the Old Flag, by Henty; 
Janice Meredith, by Ford; A Tory Plot, by Otis; The Spy, by Cooper. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 147 

bers of that body who as yet proclaimed the idea of complete 
independence. Many of the members believed that even yet, 
by force of arms, the British government might be brought to a 
sense of its duty toward the colonies. 

However, it became apparent that the Continental army must 
act as a unit, in order that this might be accomplished. In order 
that the Continental army might act as a unit it was of course 
necessary to appoint a commander over the entire Colonial 
army. John Hancock and the unprincipled character, Charles 
Lee, both aspired to this office, but after due deliberation, John 
Adams in one of his speeches took the liberty to give what he be- 
lieved to be the qualifications necessary in one who might assume 
the command of this most important position, in language as 
follows : 

"Such a gentleman I have in mind. I mention no names, but 
every gentleman here knows him at once as a brave soldier and 
a man of affairs. He is a gentleman from Virginia, one of this 
body, and is well known to all of us. He is a gentleman of skill 
and experience as an officer ; his independent fortune, great tal- 
ents, and excellent universal character would command the ap- 
probation of all the colonies better than any other person in the 
Union." 

Two days later the Continental congress by a unanimous vote 
elected Washington commander-in-chief. Thus not only was 
the man who possessed the greatest military ability placed at 
the head of the Continental forces, but congress by this act also 
placed at the head of the farmers of New England a wealthy and 
aristocratic planter of the south. It is probable that the ap- 
pointment of Washington as commander-in-chief did more to 
combine the forces of the different colonies to act as a unit 
against their common enemy, than any other one resolution or 
action which had ever been passed by any representative as- 
sembly of the colonies up and until this time. 

222. Battle of Bunker Hill.— [Plate No. 4.] Washington at 
once set out for Cambridge to take command of the army, but 
before he was able to reach his destination, a very important 
battle had taken place at Bunker Hill. 74 The committee of 
safety hearing that the British expected to occupy Bunker Hill 
(a point of ground completely overlooking the city of Boston), 
decided, if possible, to intercept these arrangements. Conse- 
quently on the night of June 16th, the American forces, under 

i* With Warren at Bunker Hill, by Otis. 



148 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

William Prescott, proceeded to occupy this position. On their 
arrival, however, they decided to occupy what is known as 
Breed's Hill, a position nearer the city. 

During the night the colonial army was busily engaged erect- 
ing fortifications. On the morning of the 17th the British were 
surprised to find the place fortified by the American army. They 
might have easily captured the entire American force by cap- 
turing Charlestown Neck, which was the only avenue by which 
the patriot army might escape. However, General Gage de- 
cided in favor of storming the position, and at three o'clock the 
British, three thousand strong, advanced to the attack. The 
colonists held their fire until the opposing forces were within 
fifty yards, when they opened with such deadly aim that the 
British ranks were broken, and the entire army forced to re- 
treat. Again they advanced, and again they were forced to 
retreat. A third time they advanced, and with fixed bayonets 
charged the works. The colonists were now at a disadvantage, 
for their ammunition had given out, and although fighting with 
stones and clubbed muskets, they were forced to retreat. 

The colonists in this battle lost about five hundred men, in- 
cluding their gallant and distinguished leader of the committee 
of safety, Dr. Joseph Warren. The British lost at least one-third 
of the men engaged, including nearly one hundred commissioned 
officers, among whom was the noted Major Pitcairn, who had 
charge of the British during the Lexington and Concord expedi- 
tion. 

223. Washington Takes Command.— On July 3, 1775, under 
the old historic elm on Cambridge Common, Washington took 
command of the Continental army. 75 The greatest enthusiasm 
prevailed throughout the entire army, and while this must have 
been gratifying to Washington, it also increased his sense of 
the great responsibility which was thrown upon him. 

New recruits began to pour in from all the colonies. Among 
these were Morgan and his riflemen, who had enlisted in the 
mountainous regions near the head waters of the Potomac. 
Their motto, "Liberty or Death," was suggestive of their resolu- 
tion and purpose in behalf of liberty. 

Washington now realized that supplies of all kinds must be 
furnished the army. In dress, there was no uniformity. Con- 
sequently he wrote to Congress and asked that three thousand 
hunting shirts be supplied the army. These shirts were light 

" OU South Leaflets, no. 47. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 149 

and comfortable, and would do away with the individual ap- 
parel of the soldiers from the different colonies. 

224. Washington Keeps the British Shut Up in Boston. — 
[Plate No. 4.] Since the battle of Bunker Hill the British had 
remained posted at Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill. They were 
also encamped amid the ruins of Charlestown, which city had 
been burned by order of General Gage during the battle of 
Bunker Hill. Washington decided that he would keep the Brit- 
ish shut up in Boston, and, at the same time, give his troops such 
military drill and training as were essential to their success 
against the British forces. 

225. The Colonists Attempted the Capture of Canada. — 
[Plate No. 3.] While Washington was engaged in this work at 
Boston, an expedition had been dispatched by Congress to cap- 
ture Canada. 76 General Montgomery, one of the men to whom 
this task was entrusted, with two thousand men, went by the way 
of Lake Champlain, and on November 12th captured Montreal. 
He then marched on to Quebec, and there met Benedict Arnold 
accompanied by Morgan and his riflemen, who had come by the 
way of the Kennebec Valley, and through the wilds of Maine. 
On December 31st the combined American forces attacked the 
city simultaneously from three different directions. Although 
the Continentals fought bravely, they were unsuccessful. Mont- 
gomery was killed, Arnold wounded, and Morgan and his men 
were captured. The Continentals were forced to retire, leaving 
Canada to the English. This campaign was very disastrous to 
the American cause, for not only did the Continentals lose their 
able general, Montgomery, with many prisoners, but the frontier 
was left open to invasion by the British and Indians. 

226. First Anti-Slavery Society Formed. — While the colon- 
ists were thus busily engaged in protecting their rights and lib- 
erties, it began to dawn on many of them that they should also 
protect the liberties of those who were less fortunate than them- 
selves. Slavery was already beginning to be a disturbing ele- 
ment in many of the colonies. Especially was this true in Penn- 
sylvania, and in 1775 the people had become interested to such 
an extent that they organized the first anti-slavery society, 
known as the "Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of 
Slavery." Benjamin Franklin was one of the principal person- 
ages who brought about this movement. 

227. The British Evacuate Boston.— [Plate No. 4.] The new 

76 At ihe Siege of Quebec, by Otis. 



150 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

year 1776 found the British still in Boston, 77 and Washington 
drilling his troops. Washington now having received the ar- 
tillery supplies which had been captured at Ticonderoga and 
Crown Point [Section 220], believed it was time to make a bold 
attack, and on the eve of March 4th, while the attention of the 
British was directed toward a fearful artillery fire, which was 
poured into their ranks from the American camp, Washington 
suddenly seized Dorchester Heights and began at once to erect 
fortifications. General Howe, who had now taken command of 
the British army, found that both his army and fleet were at the 
mercy of the Continental army. 

The British army had not yet forgotten the lesson learned at 
Bunker Hill, and rather than attack the Americans in their for- 
tified position, they reluctantly, on March 17th, evacuated the 
city and sailed for Halifax. Washington entered the city, and 
found that the British in their haste had left behind them a vast 
amount of cannon, small arms, ammunition, and other military 
stores. 

228. The British Transfer the War to the South.— [Plate No. 
4.] After this disastrous defeat at Boston, the king decided to 
transfer the conflict to the south. In North Carolina the col- 
onists were about evenly divided. Prom the Tory element the 
Tory governor had congregated an army of sixteen hundred 
Scotch Highlanders. 

229. Battle of Moore's Creek.— [Plate No. 4.] At Moore's 
< Jreek these Scotch Highlanders were attacked by Colonel Rich- 
ard Casswell and his Continental militia. Nearly the entire 
British force, including many thousand pounds of gold and 
much military stores, were captured. 

230. British Repulsed at Fort Moultrie.— [Plate No. 4.] Sir 
Henry Clinton now decided to capture Charleston, South Caro- 
lina. Colonel Moultrie with about twelve hundred militia, in 
anticipation of this event, had fortified a palmetto log fort on 
Sullivan 's Island, now known as Fort Moultrie. On June 28th, 
the British attacked this fort and were repulsed 7S with great 

"" Lionel Lincoln, by Cooper. 

;v Soon after the beginning of the battle, the flagstaff at the fort was cut 
1 1 IT by a cannon ball. Sergeant Jasper, a young and gallant soldier, leaped 
over the breastworks, and picking up the flag he deliberately fastened it to a 
sponge staff and hoisted it to its place. In recognition of his bravery, he 
was offered a lieutenant 's commission and presented with a beautiful and 
costly battle flag. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 151 

loss. The British now abandoned all hopes of reclaiming the 
Carolinas, and set sail with their fleet and army for New York. 

23 j. The South Declares for Independence. — [Plate No. 4.] 
Not only were the British unable to reclaim any of the southern 
colonies, but on the other hand their unauthorized actions did 
much to permanently place the southern colonies in the position 
where they were ready to declare for independence. The col- 
onies of North Carolina. South Carolina, and Georgia each or- 
ganized a provincial congress, and delegates were appointed to 
the Continental Congress, and were authorized to concur with 
delegates from other colonies in declaring independence from 
Great Britain. In November, 1775, Lord Dunmore, among other 
unwarranted acts, set fire tc the city of Norfolk. On account of 
these actions, the entire citizenship of Virginia were ready to de- 
clare for independence, and the Virginia assembly went still 
further than her southern sister colonies, for she instructed her 
delegates to propose to congress a resolution for the immediate 
and complete independence of the colonies from the mother 
country. Thomas Paine, the editor of the Pennsylvania Mag- 
azine, in his famous pamphlet, Common Sense, declared that 
immediate and complete independence was the only rational 
method of procedure. 

232. The Resolutions of Independence by Richard Henry 
Lee. — Following the instructions of the Virginia assembly, Rich- 
ard Henry Lee on June 7th arose in his place in the second con- 
tinental congress and offered resolutions tending toward inde- 
pendence of the colonies, as follows : 

"That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free 
and independent states, that they are absolved from all alle- 
giance to the British crown, and that all political connection be- 
tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, 
totally dissolved. 70 

"That it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual 
measures for forming foreign alliances. 

"That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted 
to the respective colonies for their consideration and approba- 
tion." 

233. Independence Declared July 4, 1776. — A motion for the 

ij Tin American ~R evolution. A valuable English work is Lecky's Ameri- 
can Eevolntion. Other valuable accounts of the period are given in Hart's 
The Formation of the Union, Frothhigham 's Rise of the Republic, Foster's 
C( ntury of American Diplomacy, Old South Leaflets, nos. 4. 15, 65, 97, ami 
Hart's Source Boole, nos. 60 and 63. 



152 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

adoption of these resolutions was seconded by John Adams. As 
several of the delegates had not heard from their constituencies, 
the vote on the adoption of the resolutions was deferred. In the 
meantime, however, a committee consisting of Thomas Jeffer- 




From an old engraving 
INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1776 

son of Virginia, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, John Ad- 
ams of Massachusetts, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Rob- 
ert I. Livingston of New York, was appointed to draft a Declara- 
tion of Independence. After a long and thorough discussion, 
the vote was taken on July 2d, and the resolutions were adopted. 
The draft of the Declaration of Independence, 80 which was prin- 

80 The original engrossed copy was deposited with the state department 
of the national government upon its organization. It was later entrusted to 
the care of the patent office, and finally returned to the state department in 
1877. In 1823, a copper plate was made from the original copy, from which 
facsimiles were produced for distribution to historical societies and to the 
families and heirs of the signers of the Declaration. This process so injured 
the parchment that the writing and printing are scarcely legible. It was 
exhibited on special occasions until 1894, when it was sealed in a steel case 
out of the reach of light and air. 

Upon the doctrines of the Declaration of Independence consult Merriam 's 
American Political Theories, ch. ii. Curtis 's Constitutional History of the 
United States, Schouler's History of the United States. 

Constitutional History of United States by Von Hoist; Woodrow Wilson's 
George Washington, New York, 1897; Ford's The True George Washington, 
Philadelphia, 1896; Peller's John Jay (A. S.) ; Summer's Robert Morris. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 153 

cipally the work of Thomas Jefferson, was then presented, the 
same being adopted on July 4th. The vote was by states, 
every state voting in favor of adoption, except New York. In a 
few days, however, New York also voted in favor of the adop- 
tion. 

Although congress sat with closed doors, it had become noised 
about that they were discussing this subject, and a great crowd 
had assembled outside waiting anxiously for news of the deci- 
sion. Suddenly the "Liberty Bell" rang out the joyful news 
announcing to the world, that the thirteen colonies had been 
transformed into the United States of America. Great shouts 
broke forth from the enthused multitude. The news, every- 
where in the colonies, was received with the greatest satisfac- 
tion. 

234. Washington at New York.— [Plate No. 4.] After the 
British had evacuated Boston, Washington believed that they 
would concentrate their forces at New York and if possible, 
capture that place. He therefore hastened his army to New 
York, which place he reached on the 13th of April. He found 
that the city was imperfectly guarded, and at once sent part 
of his army, under General Greene, to fortify Brooklyn Heights 
on Long Island. This had been but partially accomplished 
when Admiral Howe sailed into the harbor. Lord Howe had 
also arrived from Halifax. To these two brothers the British 
now committed the general control of affairs in the colonies. 
The British army was now enlarged by the forces of General 
Clinton, who had but recently left South Carolina, and by many 
thousands of Hessian soldiers who had been hired by King 
George. The British forces numbered near thirty-five thousand, 
while Washington could not raise more than eight thousand 
effective men. 

235. Howe Offers Peace. — Admiral Howe had been led to 
believe that he might by peaceful means induce the Americans 
to lay down their arms. He therefore opened correspondence 
with Washington. The British government refused to recognize 
Washington as commander-in-chief of the Continental army, 
which title had been bestowed on him by congress. Therefore, 
Admiral Howe addressed his communications to Washington as 
"Mr. George Washington." Washington refused the commun- 
ication on the premises that he being recognized only as a citi- 
zen, or a Virginia planter, would have no right whatever to 
enter an agreement with the British government regarding 



154 STUDENTS' HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

matters of a governmental nature. Howe then addressed the 
letter to "George Washington, Esquire," etc., etc.; but Wash- 
ington also refused to receive this communication. The mes- 
senger who carried this letter informed Washington that, inas- 
much as Admiral Howe was vested with great powers and as he 
desired peace, he would be free to grant pardon to all Ameri- 
ca ns who had taken up arms, providing they took an oath 
of allegiance to the British king. He therefore urged Wash- 
ington on this account to receive the letter. AVashington, un- 
daunted, informed the messenger that the Americans had done 
nothing but defend their rights, and since they had committed 
no crime, they needed no pardon. Admiral Howe now being 
convinced that he must resort to arms, prepared his army for the 
conflict. 

236. Battle of Long Island.— [ Plate No. 4. ] Washington now 
perceived that the British were in control of the entire bay, and 
feared that New York City would be surrounded and the Amer- 
ican forces captured. He therefore fortified Fort Washington 
and Fort Lee, hoping thus to be able to prevent the British 
vessels from passing these forts. 

The British were now on Staten Island, and twenty thousand 
strong they attempted to take possession of Brooklyn Heights. 
On August 27th a terrible battle was fought in which the Amer- 
icans were beaten. The British might easily now have captured 
the entire army had they attacked the American forces at once, 
but instead they decided to surround the army. Their plan was 
discovered by Washington, who at once issued orders to remove 
the troops across the river to New York. So well were the 
orders executed that the British did not discover the plan until 
Washington with his entire army had been ferried across the 
river and were safe in New York City. 

This safe and skilful transfer of the American army is con- 
sidered as one of the master strokes of military genius, and has 
seldom been equaled by any of the great generals of history. 

237. Howe Again Strives for Peace. — Admiral Howe was 
now of the opinion that since the colonies had been so badly 
beaten at Long Island, they might be willing to submit to the 
British government. He therefore sent General Sullivan (who 
was now his prisoner on parole) with a letter to congress asking 
for a conference with a committee chosen from the represen- 
tatives of that body. He, however, refused to receive these 
gentlemen as delegates from congress, but simply as citizens 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



155 



and asked that an informal meeting be granted him. A com- 
mittee consisting of John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and 
Edward Rutledge accordingly met the British admiral on Staten 
Island. Howe would accept nothing but unconditional sub- 
mission, while the colonies would sanction nothing but freedom 
and independence from the mother country. 

The meeting therefore was of no consequence and while the 
committee was making ready to leave the British lines, Howe 
expressed regret in being compelled to distress the Americans 
by further resort to arms. Franklin, ever readv with his wit 




Copyright, 190S, by Boston Sculpture Company, Mvlro.se. Massachusetts 
WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE 
Modeled by Raphael Gironi from the famous painting in the Metropolitan Museum. 

New York City 

and pertness, informed the admiral that the Americans would 
endeavor in every way possible to lessen this remorse by taking 
good care of themselves. Thus ended the interview, and while 
nothing of importance was gained, yet it was an inducement 
for the colonies to unite more firmly in their struggle for liberty. 
238. The British Take Possession of New York.— [Plate No. 
4.] Washington was now aware of the fact, that since the British 
had control of Long Island, he necessarily would be compelled 
to evacuate New York. 81 He therefore began his preparations, 

si Otis's The Capture of Laughing Mary. 



156 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

but before he could transfer his army safely on the New Jersey 
side, there was heavy fighting at White Plains, Fort "Washington, 
and Harlem's Heights, where the Americans lost many men by 
death and capture. 

239. Washington's Retreat Across New Jersey. — [Plate No. 
4.] The cause of the Americans now seemed hopeless. Washing- 
ton was greatly discouraged, and congress was much alarmed. 
Many of the soldiers were leaving the American army and re- 
turning to their homes, while on the other hand, many of the 
Tories joined the ranks of the British cause. Washington with 
half of his army started to retreat across New Jersey. Lord 
Cornwallis started in pursuit. Washington now planned to 
capture Cornwallis, and ordered General Charles Lee (the 
traitor) who had command of six thousand men, to join him. 
This Lee refused to do, and thus Washington was forced to flee 
before the British army, and in order to save his men, crossed 
the Delaware. Cornwallis now gave up the pursuit, and went 
into camp on the New Jersey side of the Delaware River. 

240. Charles Lee (the Traitor) Captured.— [Plate No. 4.] 
Early in December, Lee with his army crossed the Hudson and 
went into camp at Morristown. Fortunately for the colonies, 
one night while at a house some distance from his camp, he 
was captured by a party of British dragoons. This capture 
could not have happened at a more opportune time, for his 
troops now joined Washington's command, thus making it 
possible for him to act on the offensive. 

241. Washington Captured the Hessians at Trenton. — [Plate 
No. 4.] Great was the rejoicing now in the British camp. 
General Howe was invited to New York where the Tories ten- 
dered him a banquet, during the Christmas time, in honor of 
his great victories. The Hessians, as was their custom, were 
also in the midst of their Christmas festivities. Washington. 
knowing the custom of these people, decided that it was now 
time to make a bold attempt to cripple the British army. There- 
fore, on Christmas night, he crossed the Delaware River above 
Trenton, and on the next morning attacked the Hessian camp 
at Trenton, capturing over one thousand of the Hessian soldiers, 
four cannon, and a thousand stands of arms. 

242. Washington Out-Generals Cornwallis and Captures 
Princeton, January 3, 1777. — [Plate No. 4.] Cornwallis now 
hurried to Trenton and started in hot pursuit of Washington, 
coming face to face with his army on the Delaware River. It 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 157 

now seemed that escape was impossible. Cornwallis was so 
sure of this that he exclaimed to his men, "We have run down 
the old fox, and will bag him in the morning." Again Wash- 
ington's extraordinary ability saved the patriot army. Pie 
was not to be out-generaled by Cornwallis. Leaving his camp- 
fires burning, so as not to excite suspicion on the part of the 
British, he silently marched his army around the enemy's flank 
and at sunrise attacked and routed the British forces which 
were at Princeton. 

243. Washington goes into Winter Quarters at Morristown. 
— [Plate No. 4.] These two victories again placed confidence in 
the colonists. Many men flocked to Washington's standard. 
Congress gave him unlimited power with the army. He had 
so conducted this short campaign that the British were unable 
to attack him or in any way hinder his future plans. He con- 
sequently withdrew to Morristown where he would have control 
of New Jersey, and went into winter quarters, thus leaving 
the British in control of New York only. 

Frederick the Great considered this campaign the greatest 
military achievement of the century. 

244 Robert Morris makes possible the Victory at Princeton. 

[Plate No. 4.] As before stated, after the evacuation of New 
York, many of Washington's troops were leaving the ranks of 
the patriot army and returning to their homes. Congress, 
through carelessness, had failed to pay the soldiers and on this 
account, it seemed as if the entire army would disband regard- 
less of Washington's importunities. Washington, in his ex- 
tremity, implored aid from his friend, the Philadelphia banker 
and financier, Robert Morris. Morris was a stanch patriot, 
and in his own words, "on New Year's day," he said, "I gladly 
went from house to house in Philadelphia, begging, borrowing 
and demanding money for the interests of our victorious army. ' ' 
On the forenoon of the same New Year's day, he placed in 
Washington's hands fifty thousand dollars, for which he had 
pledged his word of honor. Thus was Washington able to pay 
off the soldiers and proceed with his army to the glorious vic- 
tory at Princeton. It is not too much to say that probably next 
to Washington, Robert Morris did more to make possible the 
independence of the United States than any other one man. 
Later in the history of the war, it will be noticed how he saved his 
country by again furnishing money for the army. It will be inter- 
esting for the student to keep these several occasions in mind. 



THE YEAR 1777 

245. British Plans for the Year 1777.— [Plate No. 4.] Lord 
George Germain, who was at the head of colonial affairs in the 
British cabinet, after a consultation with Lord North and sev- 
eral of his generals, decided if possible, to gain control of the 
Hudson and Mohawk valleys. This would give the British 
control of the most densely inhabited parts of New York, and 
would entirely separate the northern from the middle and 
southern colonies. It was also believed that since many of the 
inhabitants of New York were Tories, they would not only volun- 
teer to fill the ranks of the British army, but they would also 
furnish the much needed supplies. 

With this plan in view, General Burgoyne was to proceed 
from Quebec along the route of the St. Lawrence and Lake 
Champlain and capture the Hudson Valley to Albany. 

A second army under Colonel St. Leger was to proceed up 
the St. Lawrence, and Lake Ontario to Oswego. At this place 
the army was to be joined by Sir John Johnson with his Indian 
allies. These combined forces after capturing Fort Stanwix, 
would then proceed down the Mohawk Valley to Albany where 
they would unite with the army of Burgoyne. 

A third army under Sir William Howe was to ascend the Hud- 
son and then form a junction with the other armies at Albany, 
from which place the combined forces, it was believed, might 
easily overthrow the revolution in the north. 

246. Distinguished Foreign Volunteers in the Continental 
Army. — At this time the nations of Europe were seemingly at 
peace with each other. Consequently many of the officers in 
these armies, who were in sympathy with the Americans, were 
at liberty to offer their services to the young Republic. Among 
these were Koscuisko (Kos-si-us'-ko), and Pulaski (Poo-las'-ki), 
two bright and enthusiastic Polish officers, who had fought for 
the freedom of Poland. Another, and probably the most noted 
of these gentlemen, was the Marquis de la Fayette, a young 
French nobleman, who on hearing the recital of the American 
affairs by the British king's brother, became interested. Later 
on coming in contact with Franklin, who was at this time min- 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 159 

ister to France, he became so enthused that he fitted out a ship, 
at his own expense, and sailed to the United States and offered 
his services as a volunteer to Washington. Accompanying him 
was the German officer, Baron de Kalb. Later the noted officer 
Baron Steuben, who had seen much service under the great 
German general, Frederick the Great, cast his lot with the col- 
onists, and was of great benefit to Washington, and the Ameri- 
can army. 

These gentlemen, as it will be seen, were all given responsible 
positions in the army, and conducted themselves in a way worthy 
of the confidence and trust placed in them. 

247. Burgoyne Starts. — Early in the year Burgoyne received 
instructions from Lord Germain which made it explicit that he 
should pursue the route above referred to. until he had effected 
a junction with the other armies at Albany. Acting in accord- 
ance with these instructions, early in June with an army of 
about eight thousand men, he started up the St. Lawrence Valley. 
As the army proceeded many Indians were persuaded to join 
the ranks, anil by the first of July. Burgoyne appeared before 
Fort Ticonderoga. 

248. Forts Ticonderoga and Edward fall into the Hands of 
the British. — [Plate 4.] St. Clair, who was posted at Fort 
Ticonderoga, saw that it would be impossible for him to hold the 
fort against the British, and on the night of July the fifth, with 
the British cannons already pointed toward the fort, he with 
his little army, crossed the lake into the Green Mountains ; thus 
the fort which Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain boys had 
so valiantly captured, passed again into the hands of the British. 
Burgoyne next marched toward Fort Edward. General Schuy- 
ler, who had charge of the American army in this territory, now 
crossed the Hudson but was not able to give open battle to 
Burgoyne. Yet by the use of blasting powder, axes, and crow- 
bars, he was able to fell trees and obstruct the roads to such an 
extent that Burgoyne was unable to proceed faster than one 
mile a day. It was the last of July before he reached Fort 
Edward. General Schuyler seeing that his army was too small 
to hold this fort, retreated. 

249. Burgoyne is Forced to Surrender. — [Plate No. 4.] Bur- 
goyne 's Indian allies now proved to be a source of great trouble. 
It was impossible for him to manage them, and many people 
(both patriots and Tories) fell victims to the tomahawk and 
scalping knife. This not only caused the patriots to take up 



160 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




GEX. PHILIP SCHUYLER 



arms, but the Tories were so disagreeably affected that they abso- 
lutely refused in any way to help the 
British general. 

Bodies of New England militia be- 
gan to attack Burgoyne's army in 
the rear. His supplies were finally 
cut off. In his extremity he sent a 
detachment of Hessians to seize the 
American store of supplies at Ben- 
nington in Vermont. On August 17th, 
this force was met and completely an- 
nihilated by the patriot generals, John 
Stark and Seth Warner. Yet Bur- 
goyne, expecting aid from Lord 
Howe or St. Leger, continued to 
follow the instructions which he had received from Lord 
Germain. After several skirmishes he came face to face with 
the American army at Saratoga, 82 where on October 17th he 
surrendered his entire force to General Gates, who had in the 
meantime succeeded General Schuyler. 

250. St. Leger and His Indians in the Mohawk Valley. — 
[Plate No. 4.] St. Leger, in the meantime, had ascended the 
St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario to Oswego. Here he was joined 
by Johnson and his Indian allies and also many Tories. On the 
3rd of August he appeared before Fort Stanwix. This fort was 
garrisoned by only about six hundred men under Colonel Gan- 
sevoort. General Nicholas Herkimer, who was at the head of 
eight hundred yeomanry, conceived a plan to surprise and cap- 
ture St. Leger. Arrangements were made with Colonel Ganse- 
voort that he should attack St. Leger 's army in the front while 
Herkimer with his yeomanry would attack in the rear. Through 
his Indians, St. Leger received information of this scheme and 
prepared an ambush along a ravine near Oriskany through 
which Herkimer and his army must pass. 

251. Battle of Oriskany.— [Plate No. 4.] On August 6th, 
as the American army was marching along this ravine, St. Leger 
suddenly opened fire from all sides. This is said to have been 
one of the most terrible battles ever fought on the American 
continent. Tories and patriots from the immediate neighborhood 

82 Thompson's Green Mountain Boys. 
This battle is known by four different names, viz. 
Bemis Heights and Freeman's Farm. 



Saratoga, Stillwater, 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



161 



had joined their respective armies. The battle became a hand to 
hand fight. Herkimer was fatally wounded and one-third of the 
men engaged on both sides were either killed or wounded. Help 
arrived from Fort Stanwix, and St. Leger was forced to leave the 
field in order to protect his own camp. 

252. St. Leger Returns to Canada,— [Plate No. 4.] The fort 
was still in a precarious condition, but soon General Arnold ar- 
rived with help from General Schuyler's camp. By stratagem, 
he led St. Leger to believe that he was marching against him 
with a very large army. The Tories soon began to leave the 
ranks; Johnson's Indians became frightened and fled, and 
soon St. Leger was on his way to Oswego where he went aboard 
his ships and returned to Canada. 

253. The New Flag. — Congress had on June 14th adopted a 

fiag, which was to consist of thir- 
teen horizontal red and white 
stripes with thirteen white stars 
in a circle on a blue field, in the 
upper corner near the staff head. 
During the battle of Oriskany the 
troops from Fort Stanwix captured 
several British flags. These were 
taken back to the fort and hoisted 
upside down and above them all 
the Stars and Stripes was for the 
first time flung- to the breeze. 

254. Howe's Movement in New 
York. — The student will now be- 
gin to wonder why General Howe 
did not ascend the Hudson as 
planned by the British ministry. 
There are two very good reasons. 
In the first place, although Howe 
probably understood the general plans, yet he never received 
explicit instructions from Lord Germain as did the other gen- 
erals. Although the message was written directing him to pro- 
ceed up the Hudson, yet through carelessness it was pigeon- 
holed and the mistake was not discovered until it was too late. 
Howe was, therefore, free to use his own discretion in the mat- 
ter. Is it too much to say that this act of carelessness on the 
part of Lord Germain may have been the one thing left undone 
that made possible the independence of the United States? 




FIRST AMERICAN FLAG 
Adopted by Congress on June 14, 
1777. The first regular flag of this 
design was carried at the Battle of 
Brandywine, Sept. 11, 1777. 



162 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The second reason for Howe's failure to ascend the Hudson 
and join his forces with the other armies at Albany, was his in- 
ability to cope with Washington. 

Let us now return to the contest which was being waged by 
these two generals in the vicinity of New York and Philadelphia. 

255. Washington and Howe in New Jersey. — [Plate No. 4.] 
Howe, left to his own discretion, decided that he would first 
capture Philadelphia, and then proceed up the Hudson Valley. 
Washington, who was not strong enough to meet Howe in open 
battle, pursued the "Fabian Policy" of delaying the contest 
much the same as did Schuyler in his contest against Burgoyne. 
Washington by his masterly retreats and skilful manoeuvers 
was not only able to protect Philadelphia, but caused Howe to 
waste his time, so that it would be impossible for him to reach 
Albany in time to help Schuyler and St. Leger. Finally, on 
August 25th, despairing of doing anything with his shrewd ad- 
versary under the existing circumstances, Howe with his army 
set sail for the Chesapeake Bay. 

No one knows why he pursued this course unless, it may be, 
he followed the advice of Charles Lee, who was still his prisoner, 
and who had led him to believe that by taking this route, many 
Tories would join his ranks, thus making the capture of Phila- 
delphia an easy matter. 

Washington, learning of his plan, marched to meet him. 

256. The Battle of Brandywine.— [Plate No. 4.] On Sep- 
tember 25th, the two armies met on the Brandywine Creek, and 
after a stubborn conflict, the Americans were forced to retreat. 
Soon afterward the British army took possession of Philadel- 
phia and went into camp at Germantown. 

257. Battle of Germantown. — [Plate No. 4.] On October 
4th, Washington planned to attack Howe in his winter quarters 
at Germantown. The assault was made simultaneously from 
four different quarters, but owing to a dense fog, the different 
divisions became confused and the Americans were forced to 
retreat. Soon afterward he went into winter quarters at Valley 
Forge. 

258. Weakness of Congress. — We can scarcely comprehend 
the condition of political affairs in the colonies at the time of 
the Revolutionary War. Executive power was not centralized 
in one body as it is to-day. Each state was an independent sov- 
ereignty. Congress could propose and recommend matters, but 
it had no power to enforce ; it might ask the several independent 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 163 

states for men, supplies and money, but it could not command 
them. The ravages of war had destroyed the shipping and 
other commercial interests; consequently the young nation had 
no way to raise money with which to meet its obligations. 

In order to meet the immediate demands of the people and 
army, it became necessary to issue great quantities of paper 
money (Continental currency). This depreciated very rapid- 
ly in value and in reality became a menace to trade. 

259. Sufferings at Valley Forge. — [Plate No. 4.] Taking 
these conditions into consideration, the student will wonder 
how Washington was able to feed, clothe and shelter his army, 
during the terrible winter of 1777 and '78, at Valley Forge. 
Congress was untrained in matters pertaining to the provision 
of equipments for the army. Instead of appointing one quarter- 
master general who should have the entire control of these af- 
fairs, it saw fit to appoint one person to attend to the buying of 
supplies, and another person to attend to the distribution of 
these supplies. This was a serious mistake. Oftentimes blood 
oozed from the soldiers' frozen and unshod feet, while others 
froze to death for want of proper shoes and clothing, while there 
were ample supplies piled here and there along the trail ; but as 
no way had been provided for the transportation, these supplies 
were allowed to remain exposed to inclement weather where 
they soon became unfit for use, while the soldiers at Valley 
Forge were suffering untold agony. Yet amid all this suffering 
the soldiers remained true to their convictions and loyal to the 
standard of Washington. 

260. Baron Steuben's Military School. — Baron Steuben, who 
had been raised to the rank of major general, now began the 
organization of Washington's army. These frontier soldiers 
had been in the habit of fighting much the same as did the In- 
dians. Steuben practically carried on a school of military tac- 
tics during the entire winter, and by June of 1778, through his 
efforts, the ragged and starved troops of Valley Forge were as 
well versed in military ethics as any of the European armies. 
The knowledge which the troops received by this drill was put 
to £Ood use. as will be seen in the future study of the war. 



THE YEAR 1778 

261. Plan of Campaign for 1778. — Lord Germain was now 
convinced that it would be impossible for him to subdue the 
Americans by following any scheme of modern warfare. He 
therefore decided upon a campaign of arson, murder, and plun- 
der. His generals were ordered to burn the cities, destroy the 
shipping and crops, and use every other conceivable means 
which would tend to cause distress and suffering. He hoped 
in this way to subdue the spirit of the people, believing that 
in the end they might submit to the British government. 

262. The Conway Cabal. 83 — Washington 's "Fabian Policy" 
of conducting the campaign, previous to the capture of Phila- 
delphia by the British, and his inability to hold the forts on the 
Delaware, had not aroused the enthusiasm of the public as had 
the brilliant campaign in the north. Although Schuyler and 
Arnold were the men who really won the battles in the north, 
yet Gates, who had succeeded these men in command, very glad- 
ly took this glory unto himself. Had he obeyed the commands 
of Washington and sent to him the troops which Washington 
had ordered, doubtless Washington would have been able to 
hold the forts on the Delaware; but Gates wished to be com- 
mander-in-chief, and believed that in this way he might damage 
Washington and thus advance his owtn interests. Believing 
this an opportune time, he and his friends used both fair and 
unfair means to accomplish their scheme. Thomas Conway, an 
Irishman and foreign adventurer, had not received the appoint- 
ment which he desired in the army. He believed Washington 
had been the cause of his failure, and therefore entered with 
great interest into this scheme, and for a time it seemed as if 
Washington would be displaced by Gates. Finally the entire 
plot became exposed and the plotters and their confederates 
were spurned by every loyal patriot. 

263. Treaty with France. S4 — The battle of Saratoga had 

83 The title "Cabal" was derived from a famous unpopular English min- 
istry which was in power between 1667 and 1673 and was composed of men 
the initials of whose names spelled the word cabal. 

84 The account of the negotiations of the French treaty of alliance is 
given in Foster's Century of American Diplomacy. 



PERIOD OP THE REVOLUTION 165 

produced a noticeable change of feeling regarding the Revolu- 
tion, in both France and England. When the news of this vic- 
tory reached Paris, the French government decided that the 
time had arrived to form an alliance with the United States. 

The treaty was signed on February 6th, and France at once 
began to make preparations to assist the United States. 

264. Great Britain Offers All but Peace. — On the other hand 
when the news of the victory of Saratoga reached England, con- 
sternation reigned supreme. William Pitt, who had ever been 
a friend of both England and America, urged that conciliatory 
measures be formulated and placed before the American people. 
The House of Commons proceeded to act upon this policy. 
Everything but complete independence was offered to the Am- 
erican nation. 

Had these overtures been made by England at the time of the 
second Continental congress, we are safe in saying that the war 
would have closed at once, but it was now too late. The pro- 
posals of the British commissioners were disregarded altogether. 

William Pitt, that promoter of justice, now passed away, and 
in his death not only the United States but liberty loving people 
the world, over lost a friend. 

265. General Clinton Succeeds Howe. — Early in the summer 
of 1778, General Clinton succeeded General Howe, who returned 
To England. The French had already organized a fleet which 
was on its way to aid the American army. Clinton, knowing 
this, believed that it would be impossible for him to remain in 
Philadelphia without danger of being captured by the combined 
French and American forces. He therefore started to concen- 
trate his forces at New York. 

266. Battle of Monmouth.— [Plate No. 4.] This movemenl 
had been anticipated by Washington, 85 who dispatched the 
young Lafayette (who had recently been placed in command of 
a regiment) to attack the British if any opportunity was offered. 
He discharged his duty so well that he rose rapidly in the 
estimation of Washington and the people of the United States. 
Lafayette becoming quite agressive, Clinton hastily withdrew 
from Philadelphia (June 18th), and Charles Lee, who had been 
exchanged and given a command in Washington's army, was 
ordered to pursue and capture him if possible. This the traitor 
refused to do. and Lafayette was given command. Lee now. 
for some unaccountable reason, changed his mind, and Lafayette 



ssOtis'a With Washinqton at Monmouth. 



166 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

courteously turned the command, and orders of General Wash- 
ington, over to him, with the distinct understanding that they 
would be carried out to the letter. 

On the morning of the 21st, Lee was ordered to attack Clin- 
ton, but instead of obeying the command, he ordered a retreat. 
Lafayette hurriedly sent the news to Washington, who hastened 
with his army upon the scene. Lee was severely rebuked, and 
ordered to the rear, and the troops were again ordered to the 
attack. This charge was made with fixed bayonets, and follow- 
ing 1 the instructions and drill which they received under the 
direction of Steuben at Valley Forge, they forced the British to 
retreat in such haste that they left their wounded and dying 
on the battle field. 

267. Lee is Court Martialed. — For his insubordination, Lee 
was court martialed and dismissed from the army for one year. 
He never re-entered the service, and soon afterwards died. 

268. Wyoming and Cherry Valley Massacres. — [Plate No. 4. ] 
The able-bodied men of the Wyoming Valley, 86 as in other parts 
of Pennsylvania, were with Washington, watching Clinton and 
his army in New York. Taking advantage of this situation, a 
Tory (Major John Butler) marched with his combined force of 
Tories and Indians, fifteen hundred strong, from Niagara to lay 
waste this beautiful valley. 

The few boys and feeble men who were left at home hastily 
armed themselves and although they were only about two hun- 
dred strong, they attempted to oppose the approach of Butler's 
army. In the battle which took place only two or three escaped 
the scalping knife of Butler's Indians. These escaped to the 
fort of Wyoming. Butler demanded that the fort with all the 
occupants should be surrendered to him. Believing that he 
would conduct them safely to some other place they complied 
with his demand. As soon as the gates were thrown open there 
began one of the most horrible massacres which has ever oc- 
curred in the history of the country. Those who were not 
killed immediately were saved for torture; many were crowded 
in houses, and the houses set on fire. Every conceivable form 
of death that the fiendish minds of the savages could invent was 
adopted. 

In November, Joseph Brant, the celebrated Indian chief, with 
an army of Indians and Tories perpetrated similar massacres in 
Cherry Valley, New York. 

86 Campbell's Gertrude of Wyoming, 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 167 

Next year Washington sent General Sullivan, who with an 
army of five thousand men completely overthrew the forces of 
Butler and Brant at Elmira in New York. 

269. Sullivan and the French Fail at Newport. — [Plate No. 
4.] During the summer the French fleet had arrived off New- 
port. As the British were already here in considerable force, 
General Sullivan was dispatched with an army, and a combined 
attack by the Americans and French was planned. Everything 
■was ready by the last of July when suddenly the English fleet, 
appeared. Count d'Estaing (des-tan), who was in command of 
the French fleet, put to sea expecting to attack the English fleet, 
but a severe storm came up and shattered both fleets so that they 
were forced to put into port for repairs. Being harvest time 
the volunteers in Sullivan's army dispersed and went home in 
order to take care of the harvest. Consequently this campaign 
proved a failure. 



THE YEAR 1779 

270. England's Plan of Campaign and the Condition of 
Their Army. — England's plan of campaigning for the year 1779 
was the same as that of the preceding year, except that the war 
proper was transferred to the south. 87 However, her forces 
were continually being weakened on account of her wars with 
other nations. In 1779 Spain had declared war against her, in 
the hope of regaining Gibraltar and Florida, which, it will be 
remembered [Section 180], was ceded to England in 1763 by 
the treaty of Paris. Clinton was also forced to send five thou- 
sand men from his army to the West Indies in order to help the 
British forces which were there engaged against the French. 
It is therefore evident that it was impossible for England at this 
time to spare any more troops to subdue her colonies in the 
New World. 

271. Capture of Stony Point.— [Plate No. 4.] The British 
had not yet, however, given up the idea of capturing the Hudson 
River and the Mohawk Valley, and by 1779 they had gained 
possession of the Hudson River up to a small fort some miles 
below West Point. This fort was situated on a high point of 
land known as Stony Point, which ran out into the Hudson 
River. This fort was cut off from the main land by a long, 
low and narrow swamp, which was completely flooded when the 
tide was in. 

The place had been garrisoned by about six hundred British 
soldiers,, and on account of its peculiar situation it was one of 
the strongest British positions in that part of New York. From 
this place predatory bands were sent into Connecticut, where 
they destroyed the crops, burned the town, and murdered the 
men, women and children. In this way the British hoped to 
compel Washington to send part of his force to protect the in- 
habitants of Connecticut. This would very materially weaken 
his army, and thus the British hoped to be able to capture AVest 
Point. However, Washington, as usual, did exactly what they 
did not expect. He formulated plans for the capture of Stony 
Point, and on the night of July 15th, General Wayne (Mad 

87 Kennedy 's Joscelyn Cheshire. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



169 



Anthony), at the head of his men, marched Indian file across 
the swamp, and with fixed bayonets scaled the works, captured 
the fort, including the entire British force and an immense 
amount of munitions of war, with the loss of only fifteen killed 
and eighty-three wounded. 

As Washington needed Wayne's men, the fortifications were 
destroyed and the place evacuated. The entire American army 
was now concentrated at West Point. 

272. The War Upon the Sea, — At the beginning of the Revo- 
lutionary War, there being no general government, there of 
course was no navy. However, the Continental congress soon 
saw the need of a navy, and "Letters of Marque and Reprisal" 
were granted to privateers, with instructions to prey upon the 
British merchantmen and commerce. In 1776, Franklin, who 
was ambassador to France, was given general supervision over 
the American navy. He at once began to fit out vessels in the 
French seaports, which were commissioned to fight in behalf of 
the American colonies. 

273. John Paul Jones Captures the Serapis. — In 1778 John 
Paul Jones, 88 a brave and skilful Scotch 
sailor, who had received a commission 
as captain in the American navy, was 
given command of a small fleet, which 
had been fitted out in France. He named 
his flagship the "Bon Homme Richard." 
after Franklin, and on September 3, 
1779, while sailing in the Firth of Forth, 
he met, off Flansborough Head, a fleet 
of British merchantmen under the pro- 
tection of the two British war vessels, 
the Serapis and the Countess Scarbor- 
ough. The Richard attacked the Ser- 
apis. while the rest of the fleet captured 
the Scarborough. The fight between 

the Richard and Serapis was one of the most notable and fierce 
battles which was ever recorded in naval history. The vessels, 
by order of Paul Jones, were lashed together and for hours the 
men were engaged in a hand to hand struggle. Finally the 
British captain was forced to surrender. After the surrender 
the Richard sank and Jones, who had transferred his men to 
the Serapis, sailed off with his prize to Holland. 

ss Otis 's Cniise with Paul Jones; The Pilot; Churchill's Richard Carvel. 




JOHN PAUL JONES 

Painting by Charles W. Peale, 

Indepenndence Hall, Phil. 



J 70 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

We may justly claim that Paul Jones is the father of the navy 
of the United States. 

After this battle he remained for some time in Holland, and 
later served with great distinction in the Russian navy. Sub- 
sequently he went to France, where he died. 

274. The British are Successful in Georgia. — [Plate No. 4.] 
Using Florida as a basis for his supplies, General Prevost (Pre- 
vo) marched north, and after a brief and brilliant campaign 
captured Savannah, Augusta, and Sunbury, three of the strong- 
est positions in Georgia. 

General Benjamin Lincoln, who had been engaged in the 
Burgoyne campaign, was now placed in command of the Ameri- 
can forces in the south. He at once dispatched General 
Ashe with fifteen hundred men to threaten Savannah. When 
the American forces reached the place, they found it had been 
evacuated by the British. General Ashe at once started in 
pursuit and overtook the British at Brier's Creek where in a 
battle on March 3, 1779. he lost nearly his entire force, in- 
cluding the cannon and small arms. The British now returned 
to Augusta ; the British governor was reinstated, and England 
could once more boast of a royal province. 

275. Lincoln and d'Estaing Lose at Savannah. — [Plate No. 
4.] Late in the summer d'Estaing returned from the West 
Indies, and appeared off the coast of Georgia with a powerful 
fleet. Lincoln at once joined him and by the 23d of September 
the combined American and French forces had surrounded 
Savannah, which had been captured, late the preceding year, 
by British regulars from New fork. 

For three weeks the siege w T as kept up and it seemed they 
would be successful, when d'Estaing, fearing that the autumnal 
storms, which are so severe along the coast, might destroy his 
fleet, decided to capture the place by storm. An assault was 
made on the place on October 9th, but the assailants were total- 
ly defeated. Among the slain were the gallant Pulaski and 
Sergeant Jasper, who died clinging to the banner which had 
been presented to his regiment after their noble defense at 
Fort Moultrie [Section 230 and Note 781 on June 28, 1776. 
D'Estaing, who was also wounded, now put out to sea, and as he 
had anticipated, his fleet was struck by one of the fierce hurri- 
canes above referred to. The vessels of the fleet being unable 
i" remain together, part turned to the West Indies, while the 
rest crossed the ocean to France. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 



171 



276. Colonel Clark in the West.— [Plate No. 3.] The terri- 
tory lying between the Ohio and Ten- 
nessee Rivers had for some time at- 
tracted the attention of pioneers. 
Daniel Boone. James Harrod and oth- 
ers had been instrumental in found- 
ing the towns of Boonesboro and 
Ilarrodsburg. Other pioneers bad 
established the cities of Lexington 
and Louisville. The British general, 
Hamilton, who was at this time gov- 
ernor of the Northwest, had by pres- 
ents and rewards, which he paid for 
scalps, enlisted many Indians on the 
side of the British. Consequently 
the settlers along the frontier of 
Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the settlements of Kentucky, were 
continually being attacked by these hired Indians. Colonel 
Clark, a young land surveyor, decided, from reports which he 




DANIEL BOONE 




Lias/ , -; I'tteM^ -».*£ 






...i»..:m*M 







A PIONEER'S HOME IN THE GREAT MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 



received from scouts which he had sent throughout this country, 
that by a bold attack, the whole region could be secured from 
the British. He laid his scheme before Governor Patrick Hen- 



172 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ry, Jefferson, Madison, and others. After a careful considera- 
tion Governor Henry, without even consulting the legislature, 
authorized Colonel Clark to raise a force and proceed from Fort 
Pitt down the Ohio and take possession of this country. 

In May, 1778, Clark with a fleet of small boats left Fort Pitt 
[see Fort Duquesne, Plate No. 3], and soon landed with his en- 
tire force at the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. 
He surprised and captured Kaskaskai and Cahokia, and messen- 
gers were sent to Vincennes, 89 where the people gladly took the 
oath of allegiance to Virginia. The French inhabitants and the 
Indians were informed that the American colonies had formed 
an alliance with the French king, and they were soon on friendly 
terms with Colonel Clark and his force. 

Colonel Hamilton, commander at Detroit, later recaptured 
Vincennes, but Clark, acting with that promptness which was 
so characteristic of the man, marched with his army across the 
country, through the thawing ice-cold water and soft marshes, 
and after a short siege recaptured the town, including Hamil- 
ton and his entire force. 

Thus did Colonel Clark with his small army, by his boldness 
and consummate skill, add to the United States all that territory 
lying between the Ohio and the Great Lakes. 



*>» Thompson 's Alice of Old Vincennes; The Crossing. 



THE YEAR 1780 

277. England plans her Campaign for 1780. — England not 
only continued to carry on her plan of plunder and outrage, but 
in addition to this she now decided to transfer most of her force 
to the south, and capture the southern states one by one. She 
already had control of Florida and Georgia, and it was hoped 
that by using these states as a basis for her supplies, she might 
proceed to capture the states toward the north. 

England, as before stated [Section 270], was aware that the 
colonies must be subdued with the army already at hand, as she 
was now not only in trouble with France and Spain but in ad- 
dition she had to protect herself against the league formed by 
Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and Austria, known as the 
"Armed Neutrality of the North." Holland had also declared 
war against her, on account of questions of trade, and so it be- 
came absolutely necessary that England must reserve her forces 
in order to take care of her trouble in other parts of the world. 

278. Charleston, with Lincoln and his Army, is Captured by 
the British. — [Plate No. 4.] In order to carry out these plans, 
Clinton and Cornwallis transferred eight thousand of their sol- 
diers from New York to Savannah. Washington, foreseeing the 
necessity of a strong force in the South, sent part of his army to 
aid General Lincoln. Lincoln now had a force which, if it had 
been handled with ability, would have been able to cope with the 
British army, but he carelessly allowed himself to be shut up 
in Charleston 90 and after a siege of two months was obliged to 
surrender, not only the city, but the entire army. The rest of 
the Continental troops which were in South Carolina were soon 
cut to pieces and dispersed by the British colonel, Tarleton. 
It now seemed as if the British would soon be able to establish 
their royal governors in most of the southern states. 

279. The Battle of Camden.— [Plate No. 4.] After the cap- 
ture of Charleston, Clinton returned to New York to assume 
control of British affairs in the north. General Gates (who 
claimed the honor of the victory at Saratoga) was sent to take 
charge of the Continental army in the south. The army was 

!<c Kennedy 's Horse Shoe "Robinson; Simms's The Partisan. 



174 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

weak, ill equipped, disorganized, and discouraged, hut without 
taking these conditions into consideration, the incompetent 
Grates proceeded at once to engage in a campaign, in which he 
hoped to be able to capture Camden, one of the strong strategic 
points in South Carolina. Before he reached the place he was 
confronted by a British force under Lord Rawdon, which if he 
had attacked at once, he might have been able to destroy; but 
acting in his usual slow and disinterested way, Cornwallis was 
able to send reinforcements to Rawdon. who on August 16th 
completely destroyed the American army. Among the slain 
was the noted volunteer. De Kalb. Thus in a short time two 
entire American armies had been destroyed by the British in 
the south. 



/ 



V 



v 



74*7. ' tZ' /f*.t >^\* * ^^ ■€ -'^1 ^^^ •//***'?** *-,., , 'yt ?+*~j 



y t 



' r *- ' W 



REPRODUCTION OF PASS IN ARNOLD'S HANDWRITING 

Pound with other papers in Major Andre's boots when he was captured. The Andre 
papers were acquired by the State of New York with the George Clinton papers in 
1853 and are now in the State Library. 

280. Arnold, the Traitor. — Benedict Arnold, who had fought 
so valiantly in Canada, at Ticonderoga, Saratoga, and other 
places, after the battle of Saratoga was taken to Philadelphia 
that he might receive proper medical treatment. While here, 
on account of the laxity of his morals and character, he was 
court martialed, and ordered to be reprimanded by his com- 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 175 

mander-in-chief. Washington, who had ever been his friend, 
gave this reprimand in as mild a way as possible; but Arnold, 
who was of a nervous and revengeful disposition, could not for- 
get the ignominy and disgrace which he had needlessly brought 
upon himself. 

In the meantime, he had also married a Tory lady, and was 
drawn much into the society of the Tories, which probably had 
much to do with his future conduct. He now conceived the 
idea of securing West Point for the British. With this idea in 
view, he at once entered into correspondence with General Clin- 
ton. He also requested, and was given, the command of West 
Point by General Washington. Soon arrangements were made 
to surrender the place to Clinton and in order that the details 
of the surrender might be arranged, Clinton detailed Major 
Andre to meet Arnold, on September 21st, at a secluded spot on 
the Hudson, some distance below West Point. 

The ship Vulture, on which Andre had ascended the Hudson 
to meet Arnold. Avas fired upon and forced to drop down the 
river, leaving Andre still within the American lines. Among 
other letters Andre was given the plans of the fortifications at 
West Point, and with these secreted in his boot, he set out across 
the country toward New York. He had passed through what 
he considered the dangerous part of the country, and was quite 
near the British lines, when suddenly he was confronted by 
three patriots, who insisted upon searching his person. Find- 
ing the letters and plans, they concluded he was a spy, and 
turned him over to Washington. 

Arnold was informed of Andre's capture and escaped by ni^ht 
to the British ship, Vulture, which had again ascended the river 
in search of Andre. Thus the man in whom Washington had 
placed his confidence and who had been entrusted with the 
command of one of the most important positions of New York, 
had designedly betrayed his trust to the enemies of his country. 

281. Bad Money. — Added to all these troubles of the col- 
onies was still another. The Continental currency [Section 
258] had depreciated in value to such an extent that it became 
absolutely worthless. Congress did all in its power to stop 
the fluctuating of values, but was unable. The money finally de- 
preciated to such an extent that people would not accept it 
upon any terms whatever. 

In their derision, the colonists, when referring to something 
which had no especial value, would -draw their comparison by 



176 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

remarking that "It is not worth a Continental," referring, of 
course, to the depreciated value of the Continental currency. 
So common did this expression become that to this day the 
phrase is still used as a common by-word by people, when re- 
ferring to articles which have depreciated greatly in value. 

Yet among all these discouragements the colonists with their 
true and loyal spirit never lost hope. 

282. Partisan Leaders. — "Washington never lost hope, and 
through his magnanimity, thorough knowledge and ability, he 
was able to quell the disturbances which had arisen in the army. 
He was also able to keep Clinton shut up in New York. 

The partisan leaders, among whom were Harry Lee (Light 
Horse Harry), James Williams, Andrew Pickens, Thomas Sum- 
ter, and Francis Marion, 91 did much to restore confidence in the 
people, after the dreadful campaigns in the south. 

The British themselves were probably responsible to some 
extent for this guerrilla warfare, which was carried on by these 
patriot leaders. After the capture of the Carolinas, Clinton 
gave the inhabitants their choice of serving in the English army 
or being punished as traitors. Many of these people would 
doubtless have remained neutral, but when forced into comply- 
ing with these requests they naturally took sides with their 
neighbors and joined these patriot bands against the British. 

Especial attention should be called to the campaigns of 
Thomas Sumter (the Game Cock) and Francis Marion (the 
Swamp Fox). Sumter with a band of a few hundred of these 
patriots became so bold that he did not hesitate to attack large 
numbers of the British, and on several occasions entire regi- 
ments of the British were attacked and cut to pieces. 

Marion was even more bold than Sumter. With a company 
of less than a hundred men, he moved from place to place so 
quickly, planned his attacks with such sagacity, and carried 
out his plans with such boldness, that he became the terror of 
the British outposts. 

These bold leaders did much in the way of reconquering the 
territory wmich the British had gained in the south. 

283. King's Mountain, October 6th.— [Plate No. 4.] Corn- 
wallis, after defeating Gates, started with his army to invade 
North Carolina. Believing that in this state he would be able 
to enlist many Tories, Ferguson, with an army of twelve hun- 
dred, w T as ordered to march into the interior, and after enlisting 



fiOtis's Witli Hit Swamp Fox. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 177 

as many as could be induced to join the British ranks, he was 
again to form a junction with Cornwallis at Charlotte. Fergu- 
son, while on this expedition, suddenly came in contact with 
the American militia, which was under the partisan leaders, 
William Campbell, John Sevier, and James Williams, and was 
forced to give battle at King's Mountain. Here he was at- 
tacked by the militia simultaneously from three sides (the fourth 
side of King's Mountain being of such precipitous nature that 
it was impossible for troops to ascend or descend). The Amer- 
icans being the better marksmen, and being protected by the 
trees, the British were soon defeated, the entire force being 
either killed or captured. Among the dead was the brave 
Major Ferguson and the partisan leader, James Williams. 

Cornwallis on account of the loss of this part of his army, was 
now forced to fall back until he received reinforcements, which 
had been sent by Clinton from New York. 



THE YEAR 1781 

284. Arnold Commits Depredations in the South. — Early in 
the year Arnold (the traitor) who had been sent to Virginia 
by Clinton, proceeded to commit the most cowardly depreda- 
tions in both Virginia and Connecticut. In order to gratify 
his revenge, men, women and children were murdered, property 
of all kinds was destroyed, and on several occasions entire cities 
were burned to the ground. 

Washington, in order to counteract these actions, sent Steu- 
ben to Virginia, who did much to protect the people against 
the outrages of this unprincipled man. 

285. Greene takes Charge of the Army in the South. — [Plate 
No. 4.] After his defeat, at Camden, Gates had tried to collect 
what was left of his routed army, at Hillsborough. Congress 
now,, becoming convinced of their inability to appoint com- 
manders to take charge of the Continental army, authorized 
Washington to appoint a commander for the southern army. 
Washington immediately appointed Greene, in whom he had 
great confidence. Greene, like Washington, had that rare gift 
of comprehension and action, which is. so essential to the suc- 
cess of a general. With Greene came Kosciusko. He was. also, 
soon joined by Morgan, Sumter, Marion, and other of these 
noble partisan leaders. 

After putting his army in as good a condition as possible, 
Greene saw fit to divide it into two parts. With one division he 
threatened Cornwallis's communication w T ith the coast, while 
the other division under Morgan he sent into the interior. 

Cornwallis was now between two fires. He dared not attack 
Greene for fear that Morgan would gain complete control of 
the interior; neither did he dare to attack Morgan as Greene 
would then cut off his communications with the coast. He fin- 
ally decided to follow- the plan adopted by Greene and with 
part of his army he marched into North Carolina, while the rest 
of his army he placed under Tarleton, with orders to capture 
Morgan. 

286. Battle of Cowpens, January 17.— [Plate No. 4.] Tarle- 
ton at once started in pursuit of Morgan, who reluctantly re- 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 179 

treated to a grazing ground known as "Cowpens, " where he 
arranged his army, and prepared to meet his adversary. On 
January 17th, the battle was fought and Tarleton was com- 
pletely routed. Morgan in the arrangement of his plan of 
battle proved himself to be one of the most brilliant command- 
ers of the century. Having completely destroyed Tarleton 's 
army, he now started to rejoin Greene's army which was near 
the Pedee River. 

287. The Race for the Dan.— [Plate No. 4.] General Greene, 
learning of Morgan's movement, started his army north in 
order to combine the two forces. Placing his division of the 
army under the command of General Huger, General Greene, 
with a small body guard, left the main army and with the 
greatest possible speed, hastened to Morgan's division, and took 
personal command. 

A race now began, between Greene and Cornwallis, for the 
fords of the Dan. Each general put into execution all the 
military tactics then known and used in civilized warfare, but 
Greene completely out-generaled the British general, and was 
able to cross the Dan with his force before the arrival of Corn- 
wallis. Here Greene was met by the other division of his army, 
and on the 15th of March a battle was fought between the two 
forces near Guilford Court House. The battle was a victory 
for neither side, but the British were so badly crippled that 
they retired into Virginia, leaving Greene free to reclaim South 
Carolina and Georgia from British rule and oppression. 

288. The Recovery of South Carolina and Georgia by Greene. 
— [Plate No. 4.] Camden, and other positions held by the Brit- 
ish soon fell into the hands of General Greene. The only con- 
test of any real importance was the battle which was fought 
at Eutaw Springs. At the close of this battle, on the night of 
the 8th of September, the British held possession of the field, 
but as at Guilford Court House, they were so terribly crippled, 
that on the following night they hastily retreated to Charles- 
town where they remained inactive until the close of the war. 

289. The Adoption of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. 
— On July 12, 1776, just eight days after the adoption of the 
Declaration of Independence, a committee, which had been ap- 
pointed for that purpose, submitted to Congress a draft of the 
Articles of Confederation. On November 15th, of the next 
year, the articles after being amended, were accepted by con- 
gress, but not until three and one-half years later, or in March, 



180 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

1781, were they adopted by all the states, and recognized as law. 

There were several reasons for this delay in the final adop- 
tion by the states. In the first place congress was very busy 
with war matters, and had not the leisure time to give to the 
careful and necessary consideration of this instrument. 

Jn the second place, congress was not at all times composed 
of men of strong character who were thoroughly in sympathy 
with these plans ; many of the stronger men, who had been mem- 
bers of congress and were present at the adoption of the Declar- 
ation of Independence, had left congress to take charge of 
political affairs in their own states, or were in foreign countries 
representing the colonies on special business. Most of these, 
however, had returned to congress by March, 1781, at the time 
that the Articles of Confederation were adopted and became 
the law. 

The third, and probably the greatest obstacle which delayed 
the adoption of the Articles of Confederation, was the claim 
which many of the larger states made the vast tract of land 
which was lying to the west of the colonies. It will be remem- 
bered that in some of the charters issued by the king the 
grants extended from sea to sea or far inland. [Sections 72, 
95, 120, 151, and 299.] The smaller states whose charters lim- 
ited their territory to a certain small area contended that since 
they had engaged in the Revolution to wrest this vast unoc- 
cupied territory from England, that if they were successful the 
territory should become a national domain instead of being 
retained by a few individual states. In order to eliminate this 
trouble, New York in 1780, instructed her delegates to inform 
congress that all the land west of a certain boundary line 
should become public land for the use and benefit of the United 
States in general. The smaller states now began to think that 
they might trust their case to the honor of the other states, and 
as before stated Maryland, which was the last to sign the Arti- 
cles of Confederation, reluctantly came forward with her con- 
sent on March 1, 1781. from which time the Articles of 
Confederation became binding as the highest authority in all 
the states. 

290. Cornwallis Retreats to Yorktown. — [Plate No. 4.] Af- 
ter General Greene left Cornwallis and started to the south 
[Section 287] to reclaim Georgia and South Carolina, Lafay- 
ette 92 was sent by Washington to take care of Cornwallis. 

92 Otis 's With Lafayette at Yorktown. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 181 

Wayne (Mad Anthony) soon joined Lafayette and although 
the American force was yet smaller than that of the enemy, 
yet by valor and skill, Lafayette was able to force the British 
army to retreat toward Yorktown, which place Cornwallis 
entered in August. Lafayette now took up his position at 
Malvern Hill, and soon had control of all avenues by which 
the British might escape. 

291. Morris again Aids Washington. — Washington's army 
had recently been reenforced by recruits from France under 
Rochambeau. Count de Grasse also set sail from the West 
Indies with a magnificent fleet. Arrangements were now made 
with the French admiral to guard the coast while Washington 
and Rochambeau should march from West Point to Yorktown, 
and aid Lafayette in the capture of Cornwallis. Early in Au- 
gust, Washington started his army on the march, and soon 
arrived at Philadelphia, but now troubles came thick and fast. 
Congress had not paid the soldiers their wages for many months 
and it soon became apparent to AVashington that the men would 
desert at once, unless paid. The treasury was empty, and as 
the student already knows, the colonial currency was worth- 
less. Washington in his trouble again applied to his friend, 
Robert Morris. Through the efforts of this financier, the money 
was raised, the w T ages of the soldiers paid, and Washington 
was again soon on the march toward Yorktown. 

292. The Greatness of Washington, Morris, and Franklin.— 
Washington is rightfully known as "The Father of His Coun- 
try, ' ' and with as much respect and reverence should Benjamin 
Franklin and Robert Morris be known as grandfathers of this 
great nation ; for surely no father ever came to the rescue of a 
son in times of trouble and adversity in a more noble and unsel- 
fish spirit than did Franklin and Morris come to the rescue of 
Washington during the dark days of the Rebellion. 

293 The Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown and the 
Treaty of Peace. — The route over which Washington took his 
army and his manner of conducting the campaign led Clinton to 
bebeve that New York was to be attacked by Wasbington. He 
conseOjiiently concentrated all the forces he could reach, at that 
place. Not until it was too late did he perceive his mistake. 
Washington had out-generaled him and soon was with Lafayette 
at Yorktown. De Grasse had control of the sea. Washington 
and Rochambeau had complete control of the land. Cornwallis 
was completely surrounded. He in vain looked for an avenue of 



182 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

escape but there was none, so on October 19th, the soldiers of the 
British army, as prisoners of war, marched out of Yorktown 
to the tune of "The World Turned Upside Down." 

The news of the surrender was received in all parts of the 
United States and Prance with the greatest joy and exaltation. 
All believed that this practically ended the war. 

In England the news cast the deepest gloom over the king 
and his war ministry. The English treasury was bankrupt, 
and on account of her troubles in other parts of the world, 
England could send no more soldiers to the American shore. 
There had also arisen a very strong element which was in favor 
of giving independence to the American colonies. Finally the 
war ministry was forced to resign. Lord Rockingham took the 
place of Lord North, and peace cammissioners were soon ap- 
pointed to meet the peace commissioners of the United States. 

In September, 1783, a treaty of peace 93 was entered into, 
between the two nations giving to the United States complete 
and immediate independence. 

_!!>4. Washington resigns his Commission. — On November 
3. 1783, by order of the congress, the American army was dis- 
banded. 

Washington with his officers and a few soldiers made their 
way to New York, which had been evacuated by the British 
in November. At this place Washington, with tears in his eyes, 
bade farewell to his officers. This was one of the saddest scenes 
during the entire war. As the officers formed in line and passed 
their great war chief, he silently extended his hand and be- 
stowed on each a kiss. Not a word was spoken. Afterward 
Washington, with the entire company of officers, walked to the 
boat landing, and with one farewell wave, Washington was off 
for Philadelphia. From here he went to Annapolis where con- 
gress was in session, and on December 23. with that quiet 
dignity which was so characteristic of the man, in a few well 
chosen words, he surrendered his commission to the president 
of congress. The next day Washington, the private citizen, 
might have been seen making his way quietly to his beloved 
home at Mount Vernon. 



93 The treaty is given in full, in Preston's Documents Illustrative of 
American History. 



THE UNITED STATES UNDER THE CONFEDERATION 

295. Difficulties Which Beset the New Government. — The 
power which had been bestowed on congress by the states, was 
simply a creation, which grew out of necessity, on account of 
the contest which was being waged with England. The Articles 
of Confederation, under which congress acted, were not con- 
sidered to be binding by either congress or the states. As long 
as the Revolutionary War lasted, the people by force of cir- 
cumstances acted and fought together, but the states in no way 
delegated any power to congress which would make that body 
the sovereign power. 

As soon as the war closed, and the solution of questions of 
every day life linked with those of national importance, came 
be lore congress, it became apparent to statesmen, that the 
Articles of Confederation could not long hold the states together. 

296. Financial Conditions. — Congress under the Confeder- 
ation had inherited the Revolutionary War debt, of about 
thirty-five million dollars. Much of this money had been 
secured by loans from France, Holland, and wealthy individual 
citizens of our own country. In order to meet these obligations, 
congress had from time to time issued Continental currency, 
which as before stated [Sections 258 and 281] had depreciated 
in value until corporations, as well as citizens absolutely refused 
to receive it in exchange for the necessities of life. The time 
of course arrived when these loans must be paid, and the Con- 
tinental currency redeemed. In order to do this congress re- 
sorted to lotteries and the sale of public property. In addition it 
asked for appropriations from the different states. 

Often-times, the states refused to pay the amounts which had 
been levied upon them by congress, or generally when they did 
undertake to meet these obligations, the taxes which they levied 
in order to raise the money were so high that the people abso- 
lutely refused to pay them. 

297. Shays 's Rebellion. — In Massachusetts this spirit man- 
ifested itself to such an extent, that a rebellious body of men 
under the leadership of Daniel Shays, 94 attempted to seize the 

9*Fi«ke's Critical Period of American History. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 185 

state arsenal. This force was dispersed with difficulty, and 
brought vividly before the public the fact, that there must be a 
stronger centralized power than that provided for by the Con- 
federation, to take care of matters of national importance. 

298. Foreign Affairs. — The weakness of the government un- 
der the Confederation, was again shown by the relations of the 
government with foreign nations. According to the treaty with 
England, all land was to be restored to the rightful owners, 
regardless of Tory or patriot affiliations. Furthermore, all 
debts contracted by the colonies before the war were to be paid 
by the government, under the Confederation. Congress recom- 
mended that the states meet these obligations, but as she had no 
power to enforce these recommendations, the states did exactly 
those things which were contrary to the stipulations of the 
treaty. 

Foreign nations also refused to enter into treaties with the 
new government, for the simple reason that the acts of our 
foreign ministers Avere not binding unless sanctioned by each 
individual state. This fact is made apparent in the following 
letter written by the Duke of Dorset in 1785, to the American 
commissioners, who were at that time negotiating a treaty of 
commerce with England : 

". . . I have been," says the Duke of Dorset. . . "in- 
structed to learn from you, gentlemen, what is the real nature 
of the powers with which you are invested, whether you are 
merely commissioned by Congress or whether you have received 
separate powers from the respective states. . . The apparent 
determination of the respective states to regulate their own 
separate interests renders it absolutely necessary, . . . that 
my court should be informed how far the Commissioners can be 
duly authorized to enter into any engagements with Great 
Britain, which it may not be in the power of any one of the 
states to render totally useless and inefficient." Diplomatic 
Correspondence, 1783-1789, II, p. 297. 

299. Land Cessions. — Another question which caused the 
Confederation a great deal of trouble, 95 was the question regard- 
ing the session of lands to the general government by the differ- 
ent states. 

As had already been stated [Section 289] New York in 1780 
surrendered her claims to the general government. In 1784, 
Virginia relinquished to the general government all her claims 

95 Caldwell 's American History. 



186 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

except a military reserve of about three and one-half million 
acres lying in the south central part of what is now the state 
of Ohio. In 1785, just ten years after the battle of Lexington, 
Massachusetts relinquished her claim, and in 1786, Connecticut 
completed her cession, reserving about three and one-half mil- 
lions along the southern shore of Lake Erie, known as the 
' ' Connecticut Reserve. ' ' 

300. The Ordinance of 1787.— By these cessions the United 
States had come into control of a vast amount of territory known 
as the Northwest Territory. Consequently, as the territory 
was being rapidly settled, it became necessary that laws be 
enacted providing for the government and regulation of all 
affairs which might, in the future, have anything to do with 
this territory. After much discussion, congress in June, 1787, 
passed what is known as the "Ordinance of 1787." 

The laws provided for by this ordinance were very important 
and far reaching. 96 Daniel Webster when speaking in refer- 
ence to this bill said, "I doubt whether one single law of any 
law giver, ancient or modern, has produced effects of a more 
distinct, marked and lasting character than the Ordinance of 
1787." 

Among other things the ordinance provided for complete 
religious toleration, trial by jury, humane treatment of Indians, 
and territorial representation in congress. It furthermore 
provided that states, which should be formed from the North- 
west Territory, should forever remain a part of the Confeder- 
ation ; but by far the most important article is as follows : 

' ' There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in 
the said territory otherwise than in the punishment of crimes 
whereof the party shall have been duly convicted: Provided 
always, that any person escaping into the same, from whom 
labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original 
states, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed 
to the person claiming his or her labor or service, &z aforesaid. ' ' 

301. The Annapolis Convention. — As each state was a sov- 
ereign power, they naturally became very jealous of each other. 

9 6 The origin and importance of the Ordinance of 17S7 is fully discussed 
in Hinsdale's Old Northwest. The Ordinance is given in full in Old South 
Leaflets, No. 13. Much interesting material is afforded by the biographies 
of the leading men of the period, especially those of Robert and Gouverneur 
Morris, Hamilton, Madison, Washington, Franklin, Adams and Jefferson, 
in the American Statesmen series. Illustrative material is given in Old South 
Leaflets, nos. 40 and 42, Hart's Source Boole, nos. 64. 65 and 67. 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 187 

Especially was this true where a navigable river was the bound- 
ary line between two of the states. Thus Maryland and Vir- 
ginia found it almost impossible to come to any agreement re- 
garding the navigation of the Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac 
River. In order that this question might be settled, both states 
sent delegates to meet in a convention at Alexandria, in March, 
1785. Washington, who was a member of this commission, in- 
vited the delegates to Mount Vernon, where after thoroughly 
discussing the subject, it was proposed to communicate with the 
legislatures of the other states, and if possible, have them ap- 
point representatives which should meet in a convention, and 
consider the subject of commerce. This meeting met at Annap- 
olis in September, 1776, but as only five states were represented, 
nothing of importance was transacted. Before they adjourned, 
they proposed another convention, and recommended that all 
the states send representatives. 

302. The Constitutional Convention. — This second conven- 
tion 97 met at Philadelphia in May, 1787, and for four months 
the ablest men of the country sat behind closed doors, and with 
that patriotism and ability, which has never been equaled in the 
history of any nation, they labored until they had engrossed one 
of the greatest documents of profane history. 

The delegates naturally worked for those principles which 
appealed to them as consistent to the welfare of their constitu- 
ency. Soon, however, it became apparent that they must make 
many concessions in order to come to any general agreement. 
They began to realize that they were not only citizens of their 
own individual states, but in a larger sense they were citizens 
of the United States. With this fact in view, they gave up the 

97 Caldwell 's American History; Constitutional History of the United 
states, by Geo. T. Curtis; Hoist's United States; Fiske's Critical Period of 
American History; Hart's Formation of the Union; Hinsdale's American 
Government; Wilson's The State; James and Banf ord 's Government in State 
and Nation; Channing's Student's History of the United States; Frothing- 
ham 's Rise of the Bepuhlic. 

If possible, the student should consult the Journal of the Constitutional 
Convention, -written by Madison, its secretary. For the arguments of the 
Federalists in favor of the Constitution refer to the Federalist (see Bibliog- 
raphy). The two views are well summarized in Old South Leaflets, no. 106, 
Calhoun's discussion of the government and no. 12, nos. i and ii of the Fed- 
eralist. Also see Webster's "Reply to Hayne. " The full text of the Con- 
stitution is given in Old South Leaflets, no. 1. Other valuable material will 
be found in the lives of Hamilton, Madison. Washington. Morris, Jefferson, 
Franklin, and Adams in the American Statesmen series. 



188 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

hope of remodeling the Articles of Confederation, and at once 
began the work of drafting a new constitution. 

303. The Three Compromises. — On account of the many 
mutual concessions made by the delegates in this convention, the 
Constitution is often spoken of as the "Document of Com- 
promises." Three of these compromises were of such import- 
ance that they stand out more prominent than the rest. 

The first was a compromise between the larger and smaller 
states, regarding representation in congress; whereby all 
states, regardless of population, were allowed equal representa- 
tion in the senate, while in the house of representatives, the 
representation depended on the number of the state's inhabi- 
tants. 

The second was a compromise between the northern and 
southern states, or to be more explicit, between the states which 
had a large slave population, and those in which slavery was not 
tolerated. This compromise provided that in the enumeration 
of the inhabitants, for the ratio of representation in the house 
of representatives, three-fifths of all the slaves were to be in- 
cluded. 

The third compromise was a concession to the states of Geor- 
gia and South Carolina. By it, permission was given for the 
importation of slaves from Africa until the year 1808. 

304. The Constitution Adopted.— On September 17, 1787, 
the same day that congress had passed the ordinance prohibit- 
ing slavery in the Northwest Territory, the Constitution was 
completed and adopted by the convention. It was then present- 
ed to congress and that body immediately submitted it to the 
people of the states for their approval or rejection. In less 
than three years after the constitution was submitted to the 
people, it was adopted by all of the states. 

305. The Bloodless Rebellion. — That the engrossing and 
adopting of the Constitution of the United States was a rebel- 
lion, must be admitted, by all students of history. No such 
action or proceeding, was provided for by the Articles of Con- 
federation or by the constitutions of any of the states. "That 
the pen is mightier than the sword" was here exemplified in its 
truest sense, for the change of government from the Confedera- 
tion to the government under the Constitution was made without 
the spilling of a single drop of blood. This bloodless act of 
transition cannot be duplicated in the history of nations. 

306. The Federalists. — The realization of this fact may be 



PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 189 

attributed to a great extent to the fact that the subject was 
discussed, not only in the conventions and in the legislatures, 
but in the newspapers, and in pamphlets. Many elaborate and 
conclusive essays, which are now, in a collected form, known as 
the Federalist, were written by Alexander Hamilton, John 
Jay, and James Madison. These combined forces had much 
to do in educating and influencing the public toward the wis- 
dom of this movement. 

307. The New Government and Washington's Inauguration. 
— As soon as two-thirds of the states had adopted the Constitu- 
tion it was to become the supreme law of the land. The second 
congress had provided that the national congress under the 
Constitution should meet on the 4th of March in New York 
City. It also provided that the president should be elected by 
an electoral college, of delegates from the different states, and 
that the one receiving the highest number of votes should be 
president and the one receiving the next highest vote should 
be vice president. 9 * 

The American people naturally turned toward Washington 
who was unanimously chosen the first president of the United 
States. John Adams who received the next highest vote was 
elected vice president. 

Washington's trip from his home, at Mount Vernon, to New 
York City, was a continual ovation. Instead of marching 
through Philadelphia, Trenton, Princeton, and crossing the Del- 
aware at the head of a retreating and pursued army, he now 
paused at these places to receive the ovations and congratula- 
tions of a patriotic and free people. 

As the student already knows, the means of communication 
and the modes of travel at this time w r ere very slow, and on this 
account but very few congressmen had arrived at New York 
on March 4th. It was not until April 6th that the two 
houses were organized. After counting the votes, messengers 
were at once dispatched to notify Washington and Adams of 
their election. Washington left Mount Vernon April the 16th, 
but was not inaugurated until April the 30th. On this date in 
the old Federal Hall, Robert R. Livingston administered the 
oath of office to Washington, and he immediately entered upon 
his duties as president of the United States. 



o^ Twelfth amendment. 



NEUTRALITY AND COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE, 

1789-1815 

FEDERALIST ADMINISTRATION, 1789-1797 




Portrait by Stuart 
GEORGE WASHINGTON 

308. President Washington; His Country and People- 
It was with the deepest regret that Washington again left his 
home at Mount Vernon, to assume the great responsibilities 
which naturally would fall upon the first president of the 
United States. 

The nation, at this time, included practically all the territory 
east of the Mississippi River, except the Spanish territory, 
Florida. However, nearly the entire population was to be found 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 191 

in the thirteen original states. All the country between the 
Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River was a vast 
unbroken wilderness, save here and there, where a few brave 
pioneers had established trading posts and settlements. 

The population of the nation, at this time, was not more than 
four million, and of this number nearly one-fifth were negro 
slaves. Most of the .slave population was in that part of the 
country south of the Mason and Dixon line. Of the free white 
people there was a majority by nearly twenty-five thousand, 
north of the Mason and Dixon line. 

It is well to note here also that the national debt had accum- 
ulated until it was over seventy-five millions of dollars. Such 
were the conditions when Washington entered upon his duties 
as president in 1789. 

309. Political Parties. — Although Washington was unanim- 
ously chosen president by the people of the United States, yet 
there were at this time two distinct political parties. The 
origin of these parties may readily be traced to the constitu- 
tional convention. 

As is the case, when any great question is up for discussion, 
one element naturally favors the proposition, while the other 
party arrays its forces against it. The people who favored the 
Constitution with a strong centralized government, were called 
"Federalists" or "Loose Constructionists." Alexander Ham- 
ilton on account of the energy he exerted in behalf of the Con- 
stitution, naturally became the leader of this party. 

Those who were against the adoption of the Constitution were 
called "Anti-Federalists" or "Strict Constructionists," and be- 
lieved in giving the states more power, and the national gov- 
ernment less. Thomas Jefferson naturally became the leader 
of this party. 

310. The President's Cabinet. — During Washington's ad- 
ministration, the president's cabinet consisted of but four 
departments which were as follows : The department of state, 
the department of treasury, the department of war, and the de- 
partment of justice. 

The head of each of these different departments taken col- 
lectively made up the president's official family, which is known 
as the cabinet. Washington, in choosing the members of his 
cabinet, used the shrewdness and sagacity which was so char- 
acteristic of him in all his public, as well as private affairs. 
The department of state is the most important, and the secre- 



192 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tary of this department is therefore necessarily the head of the 
president's cabinet. Washington, with the consent of the 
senate, which is necessary in all such appointments, chose as 
the head of this important department Thomas Jefferson, the 
leader of the anti-federalists. As the secretary of the trea- 
sury department, Alexander Hamilton, the leader of the fed- 
eralist party, was chosen. Thus the heads of the two most 
important departments of the president's cabinet were filled 
by leaders of the two political parties. 

Two inimical forces when brought in contact with each other, 
always tend toward neutralization. Washington must have had 
this fact in view when selecting Hamilton and Jefferson to 
represent these two important departments, and he doubtless 
avoided the disastrous effects of laws which would have been 
introduced by either party, if in no way hindered by the op- 
posing party. This will be made more evident as we study the 
different bills which were passed and became laws during this 
administration. 

Henry Knox was chosen secretary of war, and Edmund Ran- 
dolph, attorney general. 

Certainly in no cabinet since, has every department been 
represented by as strong and conscientious men. 

311. The Tariff of 1789.— Soon after the first congress, un- 
der the Constitution, met, Madison came forward and pre- 
sented a tariff bill which placed duties on foreign imports, and 
on the tonnage of foreign vessels. This bill, on account of the 
immediate need of money with which to pay the running ex- 
penses of the government, was considered indespensable, and 
was acted on at once. Fortunately for the new government the 
bill was passed, and the revenue thus derived furnished two- 
thirds of the means, sufficient to run the new government. 

312. Tariff Denned. — As the subject of the tariff is contin- 
ually before the student of United States history, it is import- 
ant that a few of the fundamental principles be given at this 
time. The subject, for convenience sake, may be divided into 
four sub-heads. 

First, free trade, which, although in no way a part of the 
tariff question, yet is so closely associated with the subject, 
that we shall treat it as one of the divisions of the tariff question 
proper. Free trade can only exist where the commercial 
transactions, which are carried on between nations, are in no 
way hampered by taxation. For a good example, let us refer 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 193 

to the commercial transactions of our country when under the 
Confederation from 1783- '89. as at this time the country was 
on a strictly free trade basis. 

The second division of the tariff is known as "Tariff for 
Revenue Only," and is aimed to provide a revenue for the 
government. Such was the tariff of 1789. This form of tariff 
is simply a form of an indirect taxation. The importers pay 
the tax which is due at the port of entry or frontier and then 
add the amount paid to the price of the goods, thereby shifting 
the burden onto the consumer. This form of taxation is justi- 
fied on the ground that it is more convenient for a person to pay 
taxes in smaller sums, in the price of goods or commodities, 
than it is in large sums by direct taxation. Therefore a revenue 
tariff is levied on goods that cannot be advantageously pro- 
duced within a country, and consequently must be imported. 

The third division of the tariff is known as "The Protective 
Tariff," and has for its principal object the modification of the 
natural products of a country. It is levied on such foreign 
products as compete with similar products made in the home 
country, and it aims to artificially raise the price of foreign 
products in order that the domestic manufacturers may not be 
undersold. 

The fourth division of the tariff is known as ' ' The Prohibitive 
Tariff. ' ' By this tariff the rates are made so high that importa- 
tion is practically monopolized by home manufacturers. This 
not only enables the home manufacturer to compete with foreign 
manufacturers, but practically shuts off all competition on ac- 
count of the exceedingly high rates. 

With these definitions of the tariff, we are ready to consider 
the tariff history of the United States. 

313. Financial Policy and the Permanent National Capital. — 
As soon as Hamilton entered upon his duties as secretary of the 
treasury, he began to outline a plan by which the {government 
might be placed upon a firmer financial basis." In the plan 
which he submitted to congress, he advised that the national 
government should assume not only the foreign war debt, but 
the debts as well, which were due from the government to its 
private citizens, including all debts contracted by the separate 
states during the Revolutionary War. There were arguments 

&9 Morse 's Jefferson, p. 97 ; Lodge 's Hamilton, p. 121 ; Mason 's Short 
Tariff History of the United States; McCook's The Latimer* ; Caldwell's 
Great American Legislators, topic, "Albert Gallatin." 

13 



194 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




ALEXANDER HAMILTON 



both in favor and against these propositions. There was none 
who seriously opposed the payment of the foreign debt, but 
when it came to the question of paying the debts due by the 
government to its private citizens, there was serious opposition, 
for the simple reason that practically all 
this debt was in the outstanding Con- 
tinental currency, and this instead of 
being held by the citizens in general, had 
been collected by speculators. Hamilton 
contended that although the money was 
held by speculators, yet it should be re- 
deemed at face value as it had been is- 
sued in good faith, and the redemption 
should be considered by the government 
as one of its most sacred obligations. 

When the question came up for discus- 
sion, regarding the assumption of the 
Revolution War debt of the different 
states, by the general government, there was also serious op- 
position. This opposition came from the states which either 
had contracted no obligations, or who had met their obligations. 
Therefore, they contended it was unfair that they should be 
taxed to pay debts of other states. When the time arrived for 
the vote, Hamilton realized that the majority of the members 
were against the proposition, yet he was determined that this 
should be the policy of the administration, and in order to win, 
he was forced to come to a compromise with Jefferson, the 
leader of the Anti-Federalists, or southern party, on another 
question which was before congress. This was the question of 
the erection of the permanent capital of the United States. 
It was finally agreed between these two leaders, that enough 
of the vote of the south should be cast in favor of Hamilton '& 
measure providing Hamilton in turn deliver enough votes 
which would permanently place the capital of the United States 
on the Potomac instead of on the Susquehannah as had been 
planned by the Federalists or the northern party. 

The "deal" was made. White and Lee of Virginia changed 
their votes in favor of Hamilton's resolutions, and Hamilton 
induced certain of his friends to vote to establish the national 
capital on the Potomac. 

Thus, at this early date, the north and the south were, on 
account of geographical and sectional characteristics, arrayed 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 



195 



against each other, a condition which has continued to exist in 
some respects until the present time. 

314. The Death of Franklin. — Near midnight of April 17. 
1790, the life of the financier, patriot, philosopher, scientist, 
philanthropist, and statesman, Dr. Franklin, passed out. Over 
twenty thousand people gathered to do honor to the departed- 
life. The young nation had lost one of its foremost citizens; 




DOME OF CAPITOL BUILDING 



Photograph by Yoris 



the world had lost a benefactor. At his own request he was 
buried beside his wife and child Frankie. The burial place in 
the cemetery of Christ's Church at Philadelphia is, in accord- 
ance with Franklin's wishes, marked only by a plain marble 
slab with these words : 



Franklin 
1790 



Benjamin 

and 
Deborah 

315. The Excise Tax, 1790, and the Whiskey Insurrection, 
1794. — As the proceeds from the tariff of 1789 were insufficient 
for the necessary government expenses, Hamilton proposed that 
an excise tax be laid on all spiritous liquors manufactured 
in the United' States, and on all liquor imported into the United 



196 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

States. This was the boldest of Hamilton's strokes of legisla- 
tion, and met with great opposition in nearly all of the states. 
The bill finally became a law, but the greatest excitement pre- 
vailed throughout the country. The people had not yet for- 
gotten the stamp act which had caused the Revolution, and as 
this bill was practically the same, they could not become recon- 
ciled, although this measure had been passed by their own home 
government. In 1794 the settlers of the western counties of 
Pennsylvania actually rebelled against the government, ind 
positively refused to pay this tax. Federal troops had to be 
sent to quell this disturbance. 

There were other reasons besides the ones already given, why 
the inhabitants of this part of Pennsylvania, especially, should 
oppose this tax. The student will remember at this time, the 
Spanish not only had control of Florida, but also the navigation 
of the lower Mississippi. Furthermore, as yet there was no di- 
rect communication by railroad, canal, or even good wagon 
roads from this section across the Allegheny Mountains to New 
York or other coast markets. Therefore it was absolutely im- 
possible for the inhabitants of this section of Pennsylvania to 
raise grain and market it. This is made quite plain in the 
"Reason for the Opposition to the Excise Tax" by Albert Gal- 
latin, in which he says : 

"Our peculiar situation renders this duty still more unequal 
and oppressive to us . . . separated from the eastern coast 
by mountains . . . we have no means of bringing the pro- 
duce of our lands to sale, whether in grain or in meal. We are 
therefore distillers through necessity. . . The inhabitants of 
the eastern side of the mountains can dispose of their grain with- 
out the additional labor of distillation at a higher price than we 
can after we have bestowed that labor upon it. Yet, with this 
additional labor, we must also pay a high duty, from which they 
are exempted, because we have no means of selling our surplus 
produce but in a distilled state." 

316. The Spanish Treaty, 1795.— [Plate No. 9.] The next 
year after the whiskey insurrection, a treaty Avas made with 
Spain by which the United States secured the free navigation of 
the Mississippi, and the right to deposit merchandise at New 
Orleans. The boundary line also was definitely settled between 
the United States and Spain, in regard to the states of Alabama, 
Mississippi, and Florida. 

317. The United States Bank, 1791, and the United States 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 



197 



Mint, 1792. — As soon as the excise tax bill became a law, Ham- 
ilton brought forward a measure creating a national bank. 
This bill was considered by Hamilton to be the most important 
of all the commercial acts recommended by him to congress. 
The bank 1,M ' was to be capitalized for ten millions of dollars, the 





United States Fugio, or Franklin Cent, 1787 (full size). This 
was the first coin minted by the United States and is very rare. 





Washington Cent, 1783 (full size) 





United States Dollar, 1801 (very rare). This is one-half size 
Note — The author is indebted to Mr. Leo Brown, of Marengo, Iowa, for the privi- 
lege of securing half-tones of the above coins. 



United States government being a stockholder for a fifth of this 
amount. The vocation of this institution was to receive de- 
posits, make loans to business men, issue paper certificates or 
bank bills, reserving enough gold and silver at all times suffi- 

ioo Hamilton, iii, pp. 106-146; Hart's Contemp's Abr'g'd, 111, 276; 
Madison's Letters, i, 528; Lodge's Hamilton, 96-131; Hoist's United States, 
i, 104: Hart's Formation, 150. 



198 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

cient to redeem these certificates when presented. Besides this, 
the bank was the depository of the government surplus. 

The bill was attacked by Madison, Jefferson, and others on the 
ground that it was unconstitutional. In his written opinion to 
the president, Jefferson argued that since the constitution gave 
Congress no express power to charter such a corporation, it was 
unconstitutional. Hamilton argued that this was an implied 
power given to congress by Article 10 of the amendments of 
the Constitution which had recently been adopted and which 
stated that ' ' Congress had the power to pass all laws necessary 
and proper for carrying into execution . . . the powers 
vested by this constitution in the government of the United 
States." When the vote was taken, is was found that all the 
northern votes except one had been cast in favor of the bill. 
The bill was signed by the president and became a law, the bank 
being chartered for twenty years and the head office being 
placed at Philadelphia with eight branches situated in other 
large and important cities. 

Hamilton followed this bill by one which established the 
United States mint at Philadelphia. The decimal system, which 
scheme had been presented by Jefferson, was adopted as was 
also the bi-metallic standard which requires the coinage of both 
gold and silver, the ratio of value between gold and silver 
at this time being 15 :1. The results of these measures were far 
greater than could have been expected by Hamilton and his 
friends. The national credit was, as if by magic, built up and 
strengthened. From a bankrupt republic had been created the 
greatest commercial nation of the world. 

Daniel "Webster, in 1831, when referring to Hamilton and his 
financial legislation, said: "He smote the rock of National 
Resources and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He 
touched the dead corpse of Public Credit, and it sprang upon its 
feet." 

Senator Lodge, referring to the same, says : 

"There was no public credit. Hamilton created it. There 
was no circulating medium, no financial machinery. He sup- 
plied them. There was no government, no system with a life in 
it, only a paper constitution. Hamilton gave vitality to the 
lifeless instrument. He drew out the resources of the country, 
he exercised the powers of the constitution, he gave courage to 
the people, he laid the foundation of national government, and 
this was the meaning and result of his financial policy." 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 199 

318. The Judiciary Established. — According to the constitu- 
tion, the government of the United States was to consist of 
three great departments, as follows : The executive depart- 
ment, consisting of the president and his cabinet ; the legislative, 
consisting of the senate and house of representatives, and the 
judiciary, consisting of a supreme court, the head of which was 
to be the chief justice. The judiciary was to be entirely inde- 
pendent of the state and district courts, and its decisions were 
to have the force of law. It was the duty of the executive de- 
partment to execute the laws, and the legislative department 
to make the laws ; it therefore became the duty of the judicial 
department to define and explain the laws. The judicial depart- 
ment therefore became the interpreter of the Constitution. 

The organization of this department being left to congress, 
Senator Ellsworth of Connecticut presented a bill which pro- 
vided for the supreme court with a chief justice and five as- 
sociates. The bill became a law, and John Jay was appointed 
by Washington as the first chief justice of the United States. 

Washington in a communication to Jay said : 

"In nominating you for the important station which you now 
fill I not only acted in conformity with my best judgment, but 
I trust I did a grateful thing to the good citizens of these United 
States." 

The truth of this statement is verified in the words of Daniel 
AVebster at a later period. Referring to the above appointment 
he said: 

"When the spotless ermine of the judicial robe fell on John 
Jay it touched nothing less spotless than itself. ' ' 

The chief justice and his associates are appointed for life. 
Therefore this department has always been independent of pol- 
itics, and on this account the influence of our supreme court in 
establishing the relations of state and national governments, and 
in its interpretation of the Constitution and the laws passed by 
congress, is now regarded as foremost of the judicial tribunals 
of the world. 

319. The Bill of Rights.— While the Constitution was before 
the state conventions for acceptance, there was serious objec- 
tion presented against it, for the reason that there was no pro- 
vision which protected the people in their individual liberties 
of worship and speech. In fact some of the states positively 
refused to accept the Constitution, unless assured that as soon 
as possible such provision should be made. Consequently con- 



200 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

gress proposed twelve amendments. Ten of these amendments 
were accepted by the states and these became a part of the Con- 
stitution. These ten amendments are known as the "Bill of 
Rights," and they prohibit congress in any way from interfering 
with the freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of 
religious worship. One prominent historian has aptly given a 
digest of these amendments in the following language: 

"They (the ten amendments) simply place the Federal Union 
under bonds, as it were, for good behavior." 










A PIONEER VILLAGE IN THE OHIO VALLEY 



320. Western Immigration and Trouble with the Indians — 
<>n account of the advantages presented to the pioneers in the 
Ohio Valley and the country to the south of the Great Lakes, 
it was not long until the trading-posts and settlements which 
had been established began to be transformed into large settle- 
ments, towns, and even cities. 101 On account of this immigra- 
tion, it became necessary for the government to make arrange- 
ments to quiet the title which the Indians still claimed in this 
land. Consequently the government began to negotiate treaties 
with the Indians by which they w r ere to relinquish all their 

111 Roosevelt's The Winning of the West, iii, chap. 3. F. A. Walker's 
TJu Making of the Nation. 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 201 

claim to the territory now constituting the states of Illinois, 
Indiana, and Ohio. Several of the Indian tribes, however, re- 
fused to abide by the treaty, and when the settlers began to oc- 
cupy the land, opened a sort of frontier warfare. Doubtless 
the British, who still retained several ports in this country, did 
much toward causing this trouble. However, General St. Clair 
who was at this time military governor of this territory, was 
given command of an army of about fifteen hundred men, and 
dispatched to quell this disturbance and establish a line of forts 
from the Ohio to Lake Erie. He was cautioned by Washington 
to guard against an Indian surprise. Notwithstanding this ad- 
vice, the Indians surprised him, at a place near the head waters 
of the Wabash, and killed and captured nearly two-thirds of 
his entire force. 

The frontier now became exposed to all sorts of depredations, 
and it became necessary to send a second expedition to quell 
this disturbance. General Anthony Wayne was placed in com- 
mand of this second expedition, and in 1794 he engaged the In- 
dians near the present site of Fort Wayne, and completely rout- 
ed them. The Indians were compelled to relinquish all their 
claim to this territory and an agreement was reached by which 
they were moved further westward. 

321. Fugitive-Slave Law of 1793. — In 1793 Congress passed 
the first fugitive-slave law, which provided that the owners of 
slaves which had escaped might seize them in any part of the 
United States, and that the slaves should be returned to the 
place from which they had escaped. By this law, any person 
who in any way shielded a slave, or in any way hindered his 
return to his master, was subject to a fine of five hundred dol- 
lars, upon proof of the same. 

322 Proclamation of Neutrality. — At the beginning of Wash- 
ington's administration, the French people had proclaimed their 
independence, executed their king (Louis XVI), and established 
the republic of France. 

In 1793 the new republic became involved in a war with Eng- 
land, and at once invited the citizens of the United States to 
join with her in the contest. By the treaty of 1778, the United 
States agreed to aid France in case she was attacked by Eng- 
land, and upon the strength of this treaty France claimed that 
the United States was under obligations to render her assist- 
ance. Many of the foremost statesmen of the United States. 
among whom were Jefferson, Madison, and others, were heartily 



202 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

in favor of joining in the contest against England, but "Wash- 
ington, after consulting with his cabinet, decided that, since the 
treaty of 1778 was not made with the new government, but with 
the deposed King Louis XVI, it was therefore null and void. 
Consequentlv he issued a proclamation of neutrality April 22, 
1793. 

323. Trouble with Citizen Genet. — At this time Edmund 
Genet was the French minister to the United States, and in 
South Carolina this gentleman was received with great en- 
thusiasm. Although he knew that Washington had issued a 
proclamation of neutrality, yet he disregarded the same and 
proceeded to raise volunteers, and to fit out privateers which 
were to assist France in her trouble with England. He ignored 
entirely the prevailing custom of presenting his credentials to 
the president as minister of France, and in many ways made 
himself obnoxious to the administration. Finally his attitude 
and actions became unbearable, and Washington demanded of 
France his immediate removal. Acting in conformity with this 
demand, France recalled Genet. 

324. Trouble with England. — On account of the war be- 
tween France and England, the commercial interests of the 
United States were seriously affected. Both countries claimed 
that food or provisions were "contraband of war," and ordered 
that merchant vessels of neutral nations, when bound for ports 
in the enemy's country, should be seized. Furthermore both 
countries claimed that, after ports had been declared to be in a 
state of blockade, vessels bound to that port should be captured. 
In opposition to this, the United States claimed that only mili- 
tary supplies were contraband, and that simply a notice of 
blockade was not effective unless there was a blockading force 
guarding the port. England was further unfavorably inclined 
toward the United States on account of the actions of Citizen 
Genet, and the United States was likewise inclined toward Eng- 
land on account of the seizure of f American seamen by the Brit- 
ish. England adhered to the principle that "Once a citizen of 
England, always a citizen of England," and on this principle 
claimed the right to take such men wherever found and impress 
them into her navy. True, the laws in regard to naturalization 
in the United States were very liberal at this time, but this was 
no reason why the United States should not resent such actions. 

Furthermore, the British had not, as yet, evacuated all the 
outposts of the frontier as had been provided by the treaty of 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 203 

1783. Detroit, Miehilimackinae, and several other important 
ports were still held, and as before stated, the British officers 
and soldiers stationed at these places kept the Indians in a state 
of unrest, and at times incited them to open hostilities. 

325. Jay's Treaty, June 24, 1795. — The war fever ran high, 
but Washington, realizing that the United States was in no 
condition to engage in war, decided if possible to enter into 
a treaty with England. In order that this might be carried out 
to the best advantage, Washington selected Chief Justice Jay 
as the one most eminently fitted to transact this business. Jay 
doubtless realized that whatever advantage he might gain to 
the United States by a treaty, yet he could not expect to satisfy 
the extreme views of the people on this subject. He knew that 
he was undertaking an unpopular piece of work, but was will- 
ing to sacrifice his own individual interests for the good of the 
country. Through his efforts an agreement was reached with 
England by which the western military posts were surrendered 
to the United States, payment made for the seizure of American 
vessels and commercial privileges, under certain conditions and 
restrictions, granted to the United States with the British West 
Indies. A treaty of commerce was also entered into between 
the United States and England. On the other hand, the United 
States was to make an appropriation of three million dollars 
with which the claims of British merchants were to be paid. 
On the question of impressment of the American seamen, no 
agreement was reached. 

Today we look back upon this treaty as one of the greatest 
diplomatic victories in the history of the United States, and the 
student of today is surprised when he learns that the senate 
sat behind closed doors for three weeks before the measure re- 
ceived the two-thirds vote which was necessary to ratify the 
treaty. 

326. Slavery and Whitney's Cotton Gin. — From the preced- 
ing events which have related to slavery, the student will perceive 
that the northern states were becoming more and more opposed 
to slavery, while in the south, the institution of slavery, was mak- 
ing slow but sure progress. An event now occurred which tend- 
ed toward immediate and more pronounced efforts in favor of 
this institution. 

The cotton plant, on account of the great expense in separating 
the seed from the cotton had not been raised to any great extent 
in the south. Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, at this 




204 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

time was engaged in teaching in Georgia. While here his atten- 
tion had been called to the expense of 
separating the seed from the cotton. 
He became interested in this fact, and 
in 1793 invented the cotton gin, a lit- 
tle machine by which one man could 
easily separate as much seed from the 
cotton as could be accomplished by 
twenty or thirty men without the ma- 
chine. This invention made the rais-, 
ing of cotton a profitable business. 
The price of negro slaves rose rapidly. 
On account of the great demand, many 

ELI WHITNEY , ■ j i i-.lt. 

ships were engaged exclusively in the 
importation of slaves from Africa. Great plantations were de- 
voted to the cotton plant. Thus the invention of the cotton gin 
by Eli Whitney did much in causing cotton to be one of the most 
important crops of the south, and on this account made slavery 
profitable if not necessary. 

327. Steam Engine.— Under the section of "Modes of Trav- 
el," we stated that our forefathers traveled much the same as 
the Romans, who were nearly twenty centuries their predeces- 
sors. It was during Washington's administration that the at- 
tempt was made in America to put into actual operation the 
steam engine for the purpose of locomotion. It is therefore 
well, at this time, that the student should take into consideration 
the development of the steam engine. 

The steam engine is by no means a new invention, for in the 
writings of Hero, a Greek of Alexandria, we find a description 
of the aeolipile, a steam toy. (See Engineer's Encyclopaedia of 
Steam, Practice, Volume I.) Therefore, we find that even before 
the Roman empire had reached its zenith, the expansive power 
of steam was understood. However, no improvements seem to 
have been made in the steam engine from this time until the 
sixteenth century. Even then what few improvements were 
made were very crude. We are safe, therefore, in saying that 
to James Watt and George Stephenson belong the honor of per- 
fecting the steam engine, so that it might be applied to prac- 
tical purposes. 

blames Watt was born in 1736 in Scotland. He came of a 
strong, studious, and intellectual family. His forefathers for 
several generations had been men of scientific and mathematical 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 205 

research. To this gentleman we are indebted for many im- 
portant inventions, among which might be mentioned the con- 
denser, the condensing pump, the mechanical invention by 
which steam is admitted into both ends of the cylinder — thereby 
doing away with the old atmospheric engine — the steam gov- 
ernor, and many other important inventions which are yet in 
actual use. 

George Stephenson was born in the northern part of England 
in 1781, and unlike James Watt, he received no education. 
However, he was of that stern, robust, attentive, and diligent 
disposition which in after years led him to say, "Well do I re- 
member the beginning of my career as an engineer, and the 
great perseverance that was required of me to get on. . . 
However, I was trusted in some small matters, and succeeded in 
giving satisfaction. Greater trusts were reposed in me, in 
which I also succeeded. . . And referring to his loco- 

motive engine, he said "and the results of my perseverance yon 
have this day witnessed." 

At the age of nineteen, he started to school in order that he 
might learn to read. His progress was rapid, and when not en- 
gaged in his daily work or on his studies, he made models of en- 
gines out of clay, experimenting, and making many practical 
improvements and suggestions. His fame spread rapidly, and 
soon his inventions and suggestions were put into actual use. 

Therefore along with the name of James Watt there must be 
coupled the name of George Stephenson, and to these two men 
must be given the credit not only of inventing, but also of pro- 
moting and introducing to the public, the utility of the steam 
engine for practical purposes. 

328. The First Successful Steamboat. — The steam engine 
was the invention of men who were not citizens of the United 
States, but to John Fitch, a native of Connecticut, belongs the 
honor of having completed the first successful steamboat. This 
boat was launched in 1787 on the Delaware, and attained a 
speed of thirteen miles an hour. Fitch obtained exclusive right 
of steam navigation in New York, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. 
The boat was made to carry passengers between Philadelphia, 
Burlington, Trenton, and other places, but the venture proved 
a commercial failure. However, it established the fact that 
it was possible to utilize the steam engine for purposes of navi- 
gation. 

329. Other Important Events. — In 1790, as provided by the 



206 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

constitution, the first census was taken, and the population of 
the United States was found to be 3,929,827. Of this number 
697,000 were negro slaves. 

In 1791 Vermont was admitted to the Union as a free state. 
In 1792 Kentucky 102 was admitted. In 1796 Tennessee was 
admitted. Both of the latter states were admitted with con- 
stitutions which permitted slavery. 

330. Washington's Farewell. 103 — Washington was now fin- 
ishing his second term as president of the United States, and as 
the time neared for the presidential election, he issued what is 
known as Ms ' ' Farewell Address, ' ' in which he announced to the 
people his determination to retire from public life. In this ad- 
dress he implored the people to be patriotic to the new govern- 
ment, and true to the principles upon which the constitution 
had been founded. 

331. The Presidential Election. — When it became generally 
known that Washington was determined to retire from public- 
life, there were many aspirants for the office of president. The 
contest finally was confined to Adams of the Federalist party, 
and Jefferson of the Anti- Federalist party. Adams received 
seventy-one of the one hundred and thirty-eight electoral votes, 
and was therefore elected president. Jefferson, his opponent, 
according to the custom of electing presidents, became vice 
president. 



102 Otis's On the Kentucky Frontier; Allen's The Beign of Law. 
^3 Old South Leaflets, no. 4. 



FEDERALIST ADMINISTRATION, 1797-1801. 




Portrait by Stuart 
JOHN ADAMS 



332. John Adams as President. — John Adams was born at 
Braintree, Massachusetts, October 
30, 1735, and at the time lie en- 
tered upon his duties as president of 
the United States, was past sixty-one 
years of age. He was forty years old 
when the American Revolution broke 
out, and on account of the many ser- 
vices which he rendered in behalf of 
the young nation, he is known in his- 
tory as the "Colossus of Independ- 
ence." He was energetic, out-spoken, 
honest and fearless, and on account 
of these attributes, oftentimes ex- 
pressed bis ideas and views in lan- 
guage which made him many strong 

enemies as well as many stanch friends. Not only was he 
identified with local and national affairs, but he served his coun- 
try as minister to France, Holland, and England. 

In regard to the constitution and the government of the 
United States, he agreed with Washington, consequently his ad- 
ministration was continued along the same plan as that adopted 
by Washington. 

333. Trouble with France. — Adams had just entered upon 
his duties as president of the United States, when he learned that 
Charles C. Pinckney, our minister to France, had been grossly in- 
sulted by that nation, and had demanded his passports and 
sailed for Holland. 

The executive functions of France were at this time exercised 
by a committee of five men known as the French Directory. 
This directory was much displeased on account of the treaty 
which had recently been ratified between the United States and 
England, and they commissioned privateers, who captured 
United States merchantmen, and treated the crews of these ves- 
sels as prisoners of war. Consequently, the president called an 



208 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

extra session of congress and laid before that body, for their 
immediate consideration, the above facts and conditions. 

334. The X. Y. Z. Papers, 1798.— For a time it seemed that 
war would be immediately declared against France, but the con- 
servative element in congress prevailed on that body to ap- 
point three special envoys to France, who should, if possible, 
establish friendly relations with that country. John Marshall, 
Elbridge Gerry, and Charles C. Pinckney, who was still abroad, 
were selected for this mission. 

Our envoys were treated with the greatest duplicity by both 
the French directory and the French people. In an unofficial 
manner they were informed by agents of Talleyrand, who was at 
this time minister of foreign affairs, that negotiations tending 
towards a treaty would not begin until they had met the follow- 
ing conditions : 

1. They must in behalf of the United States apologize for 
Adams's denunciation of the conduct of France. 

2 They must pay each director $50,000. 

3. Pay tribute to France. 

4. That if a treaty were concluded with France, the first 
condition should provide for a loan to France of not less than 
$6,000,000. 

Our envoys were disgusted and horrified. Pinckney informed 
the French agents that we had "Millions for defense but not 
one cent for tribute." 

In the president's report of this affair to congress, the names 
of the three French agents were suppressed and indicated by 
Mr. X., Mr. Y., and Mr. Z. Hence the title X. Y. Z. Mission. 

335. "Millions for Defense," 1798.— As soon as the X. Y. Z. 

communications had been published and become known, indig- 
nation reigned supreme. Party lines vanished. Congress acted 
as a unit. The department of navy was created, a secretary of 
navy appointed, and the Constitution, United States, and Con- 
stellation, three newly finished frigates, were fitted for imme- 
diate action. Arrangements were made for the organization of 
an army and Washington was nominated lieutenant-general and 
commander-in-chief of the army. 

336. Napoleon Bonaparte becomes First Consul of France. — 
"War had actually begun on the sea, and the new navy had cap- 
tured and destroyed many French ships, when fortunately Na- 
poleon Bonaparte became first consul of France and satisfactory 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 209 

arrangements having been made by the two governments, the 
war was averted. 

337. The Alien and Sedition Laws. — At this time there were 
many French exiles in this country, and it was believed that 
many of these people were acting as spies and had been instru- 
mental in causing the people of Kentucky to join in an expedi- 
tion against the Spanish of Louisiana and Florida. On this ac- 
count congress passed two laws known as the alien and sedition 
laws. 104 

The alien law gave tbe president tbe power to send out of 
the country any foreigner whom he might think dangerous to 
the government. 

The sedition -law provided for punishments in fines and im- 
prisonment for conspirators who were conspiring against the 
government and laws of the United States, or anyone who should 
print or publish false or malicious writings against the govern- 
ment, congress or the president. 

338. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, 1798. — At this 
time most of the foreigners in this country, and especially in 
Kentucky and Virginia, including the French exiles, were in 
sympathy with the French Revolution, and therefore allied 
themselves with the Anti-Federalist party, or as it is now called, 
the Democratic-Republican party. 

The sedition law was contrary to the first amendment to the 
Constitution, which provided for the freedom of the press, and 
the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions were passed declaring 
these laws not only tyrannical, but unconstitutional. Kentucky 
even went so far as to state that under these conditions a state 
might nullify any such acts as the above which might be passed 
by congress. 

Nullification is a dangerous doctrine, and later, as will be 
seen, was the source of much trouble. 

Fortunately, the trouble having been adjusted between the 
two countries, neither the alien nor sedition law was enforced, 
and consequently this trouble for the time ceased. 

339. Death of Washington, December 14th, 1799.— On the 
nineteenth day of December, John Marshall, congressman from 
Virginia, rose in his place in Congress and said : 

"The melancholy event, which Avas yesterday announced with 
doubt, has been rendered but too certain. Our Washington is 
no more! The hero, the patriot, the sage of America, the man 

10 * Charming and Hart's American History Leaflets, no. 15. 
14 



210 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



on whom in times of danger every eye was turned and all hopes 
were placed, lives now only in his great actions, and in the 
hearts of an affectionate and afflicted people. ' ' 

Not only the United States, but the entire civilized world 
mourned at his bier. The commander of the great British fleet 
on hearing the sad news, ordered the flags lowered to half mast. 
In France, Napoleon Bonaparte caused a funeral oration to be 
delivered, and for ten days the military standards were draped 
in mourning. 

Such were the tokens of grief and respect offered in memory 
of the man who was "first in war, first in peace, and first in the 
hearts of his fellow citizens." 

340. Other Important Events. — The second United States 
census was taken in 1800 and the population found to he 
5,305,952, a gain in population during the preceding decade of 
over one and one-third millions of people. 

The amount of imports, exports, and 
of all other lines of business showed that 
the country was in a prosperous condi- 
tion. 

One other very important event was 
the appointment of John Marshall, by 
the president, as chief justice of the su- 
preme court. On account of Justice 
Marshall's ability in expounding, inter- 
preting and deciding questions relating 
to the constitution of the United States, 
this is considered as one of the most im- 
portant appointments ever made in the 
history of the United States. 

It is also well to note that during the 
summer of 1800, the Federal govern- 
ment was removed to Washington, D. C. 

341. The Presidential Election of 1800.— On account of the 
alien and sedition laws, the Federalist party had become very 
unpopular, and when the electoral votes were counted it was 
found that the Federalist candidates, John Adams and Pinckney, 
were defeated. The Democratic-Republican candidates, Thomas 
Jefferson and Aaron Burr, received seventy- three votes each. 
This being a tie vote, the contest was, as provided by the con- 
stitution, taken to the house of representatives, where on the 
thirty-sixth ballot Jefferson was chosen president and Burr 
vice president. 




Painting hy Inman 

CHIEF JUSTICE 
JOHN MARSHALL 



DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 
1801-1809. 




THOMAS JEFFERSON 



342. Thomas Jefferson President. — On the 4th of March. 
1801, Thomas Jefferson, in a dignified 
yet simple and unpretentious manner, 
delivered his inaugural address before 
Congress. In this address he announced 
the policy to be pursued by him during 
his administration. He declared that 
the greatest duty of a nation to its citi- 
zens was the exacting of equal justice 
to all, and that in the execution of this 
duty, the nation would be kept clear 
of entangling alliances with foreign 
nations. He also believed in simpli- 
city and economy in governmental af- 
fairs. 

343. The Financial Reform. — In order to diminish the run- 
ning expenses of the government a reduction was made in both 
the army and navy. Fortifications were abandoned, clerks and 
officers of all governmental departments were reduced to the 
lowest possible number, and many conveniences which were 
deemed unnecessary were eliminated. Jefferson was aided in 
his plans by Albert Gallitin, who was at this time secretary of 
the treasury. "With the aid of this gentleman, the national debt 
during Jefferson's two terms was reduced from $80,000,000 to 
$45,000,000, which in itself is evidence of the economic policy 
pursued by the administration. 

344. Purchase of Louisiana. — [Plate No. 9.] It will be re- 
membered that at the close of the French and Indian War in 
1763, France ceded to Spain all her territory west of the Missis- 
sippi River, including the territory to the east of this river at 
its mouth. When Napoleon became the first consul of France, 
he was anxious to regain this territory, and through the influ- 
ence of Marie Louise, whom he had befriended, the Spanish 
king, Charles IV, by a secret treaty in October, 1800, re-ceded 



212 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to France the country now known as Louisiana. Previous to 
this, the Spanish government, which was still in command at 
New Orleans, had, in violation of the treaty of 1795, refused per- 
mission to the merchantmen of the Mississippi to deposit their 
merchandise at New Orleans. This was very injurious to the 
commerce of the United States, and Jefferson, on learning that 
Louisiana had been ceded to France, immediately began nego- 
tiations for the purchase of the territory around the mouth of 
the Mississippi River, which would give to the United States 
control of the navigation of this river. 

Fortunately for the United States it seemed certain that 
France and England would again engage in war with each 
other. Napoleon had not as yet forgotten the inter-colonial 
wars, and believed he would have trouble in holding Louisiana 
against the English. He also needed money badly, and conse- 
quently offered to sell, not only New Orleans and the immediate 
surrounding territorv, but the entire Louisiana province for 
$15,000,000. 105 

Although the American envoys, Livingston and Monroe, were 
instructed to buy only the country in the vicinity of the mouth 
of the Mississippi, yet the offer was accepted, and on April 30, 
1803, the deed of transfer was signed and sealed in the presence 
of Napoleon. 

By this purchase the area of the United States was more than 
doubled, and at later dates, the states of Louisiana, Minnesota, 
Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, Iowa, Arkansas, Montana, Nebras- 
ka, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, and Oklahoma were 
wholly or partially created out of the territory included in this 
purchase. 

i°5 By the secret treaty of San Ildefonso, Spain had agreed to retroeede 
Louisiana to France on certain conditions, one of which was a solemn pledge 
never to alienate the province. In spite of this, however, Napoleon three 
years later sold Louisiana to us, an act which was flat violation of the treaty 
of San Ildefonso. Nay more, Louisiana at that time did not belong to France. 
The retrocession had not been consummated, and when in 1803 Napoleon af- 
fixed bis name and seal to the treaty of purchase, the flag of Spain still 
floated over every fort, and her authority was still recognized in every quar- 
ter of that broad domain. Nor could Napoleon, had Louisiana belonged to 
France, have sold it without consent of the French Chambers. That consent 
was not even asked, and the United States took, title to Louisiana and re- 
ceived it. from a man who had neither the legal nor the moral right to dis- 
poso of it. John Bach McMaster in Annual Beport of the American Histor- 
ical Association, 1905, vol. i; Caldwell's American Territorial Develop- 
ment; The Louisiana Purchase, by Winslip and Wallace; Hoist's United 
States; Constitutional History of United States, by Geo. T. Curtis. 



( !OMM ERC I A L I X f ) E P EN] )ENCE 



213 




Floyd's monument, located on the Missouri River about three miles 
south of Sioux City. The following appears on one of the tablets: 
FLOYD 

This shaft marks the burial place of Sergeant Charles Floyd, a member 
of the Lewis & Clark expedition. He died in his country's service, and 
was buried near this spot August 20, 1904. 



Graves of such men are pilgrim shrines, 
Shrines to no class or creed confined. 



Erected A. D. 1900 

by the 

Floyd Monument Association, aided by the United States find t'io State 

of Iowa 

Note — This monument is situated just south of the "great bend" in the Missouri 

River where Lewis and Clark started westward across the great plains toward the 

Rocky Mountains. 



345. Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806.— [Plate No. 2.] 
Soon after the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson 
secured an appropriation from congress to defray the expense 
of a party to be engaged in exploring the Louisiana purchase, 
and the then unknown northwest or upper Pacific coast coun- 
try. Robert Gray of Boston had sailed along this coast, and had 
ascended the Columbia River, which he had named in honor of 



214 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

his ship. According to the custom of the times, the United 
States might claim this country on account of this exploration. 
Therefore, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, 
a hrother of the Revolutionary War soldier, George Rogers Clark, 
to explore this country. In May, 1804, they left St. Louis and 
ascended the Missouri River to a place near its source and from 
that point crossed the Rocky Mountains and descended the 
Columbia River to its mouth. In 1806 they made the return 
trip and submitted to the government a glowing description of 
the country they had explored. 




From a Recent Photoora/ih 
SCHUYLER MANSION 

Erected at Albany by Gen. Philip Schuyler in 1761. Here, on December 14, 1780, 
Alexander Hamilton and Elizabeth Schuyler . were married. 



346. Astoria Founded. — [Plate No. 2.] John Jacob Astor, 
a fur trader, became interested in this country through the in- 
formation submitted by Lewis and Clark, and organized the 
Pacific Fur Company, and began the establishing of trading 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 



215 



posts. One of these posts was established at the mouth of the 
Columbia River, and named Astoria. 

The United States by virtue of Gray's discovery and the ex- 
ploration of Lewis and Clark, combined with the Pacific Fur 
Company post at Astoria, now claimed all this Northwest or 
Pacific coast territory, and named it tbe Oregon country. 

347. Pike Explores the Mississippi River and the Southwest. 
— While Lewis and Clark were engaged in exploring the Pa- 




Courtesy of the B. <£■ O. R. R. Co. 
SCENE ON THE CUMBERLAND NATIONAL ROAD 



cific coast country, Zebulon Pike was seeking a source in the. 
Mississippi River. So successful was he in the performance of 
this work, that on his return, Jefferson commissioned him to 
visit the Indian tribes along the Arkansas and Red Rivers. 
While engaged in performing this task, Pike explored the Ar- 
kansas River, wandering to the west, until he reached the 
vicinity of Denver and Pike's Peak. He next attempted to 
find the headwaters of the Red River, and pushed far to the 
southward, and unfortunately passed the boundary line of the 



216 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

United States and erected a block house on Spanish territory 
near the banks of the Rio Grande River. Here he was captured 
by the Spanish and carried to Santa Fe. Finding the occupation 
of Spanish territory by Pike was unintentional, the Spanish 
government soon released him and he returned home. 

The information which the government secured from Lewis, 
Clark, and Pike, regarding the country which they had ex- 
plored, was of great value, for it furnished a very comprehensive 
view of the then unknown country west of the Mississippi River. 

348. Hamilton and Burr. — Aaron Burr, who was still smart- 
ing under the ignominy of his defeat 106 for president of the 
United States, now decided to be a candidate for the governor- 
ship of New York. Again, through the efforts of Hamilton, he 
was defeated. Believing Hamilton to be responsible for his loss 
of political power and prestige, Burr resolved to rid himself of 
his adversary, and with this idea in view challenged Hamilton 
to a duel. The challenge was accepted, and on the morning of 
July 11, 1804, at Weehawken, New Jersey, Hamilton, one of 
America 's greatest citizens, was deliberately murdered by Aaron 
Burr, vice president of the United States. 

349. Burr Commits Treason. — Burr, on account of this duel, 
was spurned on every hand, and soon became a social and po- 
litical outcast. He was yet, however, ambitious to become the 
ruler of a nation, and with this idea in view, he organized a 
military expedition, which was immediately put in motion to- 
ward the southwest, where, doubtless, be intended establishing 
a new nation. The president stopped the expedition at Natchez, 
and Burr was arrested and tried for treason against the United 
States. Although acquitted by the courts, he ever afterwards 
remained in obscurity, thoroughly hated and despised by man- 
kind in general. 

350. The Cumberland National Road, 1806.— [Plate No. 5.] 
In the meantime, Jefferson had been reelected to a second term. 
In his inaugural address he suggested an amendment to the Con- 
stitution, which would provide that the surplus revenue might 
be used for internal improvements. Congress believed this 
power to be implied in the Constitution, and appropriated money 
to be used in building a national road from Cumberland, Mary- 
land, to Wheeling, AVest Virginia. Later the road was extended 
through Janesville, Columbus, Springfield, Terre Haute and 
Vandalia, to within a few miles of St. Louis. This road, being 



iocs pjdgen's Blennerhassett ; Conqueror; Bynner's Zachary Phips. 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 



217 



the great highway of western immigration, had much to do with 

the development of the great central west. 
351. Fulton and Steam Navigation. — It will be remembered 

that the venture which Fitch made 
in steam navigation proved a finan- 
cial failure. It remained for Robert 
Fulton, a native of Pennsylvania, to 
demonstrate the utility of the steam- 
boat for commercial purposes. In 
1803 his launching, on the Seine Riv- 
er in France, of a small steamboat 
was successful in every respect. Re- 
turning to New York in 1807, he 
built and launched his steam vessel, 
Clermont, on the Hudson. The boat 
traveled between the cities of New 
York and Albany, at the rate of 
Thus the utility of the steamboat for 




ROBERT FULTON 



about five miles an hour. 




FULTON'S FIRST STEAMBOAT 



navigation was demonstrated beyond a doubt, and soon steam- 
boats superseded the old slow sailing vessels. 

353. War with the Barbary States. — For over a century the 
Mohammedan pirates of Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis 
had captured the merchantmen of other nations and imprisoned 
and held for ransom their crews. 

The United States along with other nations, had been in the 



218 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




STEPHEN DECATUR 



habit of purchasing immunity from these attacks, by paying a 
high yearly tribute. Although Jefferson was of a peace-loving 
disposition, yet he felt it to be his duty to protect the nation's 
interest and consequently notified the 
Barbary States that the United States 
would no longer pay tribute. The Mo- 
hammedans now became bolder and fierc- 
er than ever. Depredations upon the 
American commerce became unbearable, 
and the American navy was ordered to 
the Mediterranean to protect American 
interests. 

War was at once declared and Cap- 
tain Brainbridge, while chasing one of 
the enemy's cruisers, grounded his ship, 
the Philadelphia. The ship was soon 
captured and the captain and his crew 
were taken prisoners and held for ransom. 

The Philadelphia, however, did not long remain in the hands 
of the Mohammedans, for one dark night Lieutenant Decatur 
entered the harbor and captured and burned the Philadelphia 
without the loss of a man. 

The Americans now became very aggressive. Soon many of 
the enemy's ships were captured and sunk. An army, organizd 
to a great extent from the disaffected subjects of the Barbary 
States, captured the city of Tripoli. The Pasha was thoroughly 
frightened and in 1805 a treaty was ratified between the two 
nations by which the American merchantmen were guaranteed 
freedom on the Mediterranean waters. 

No further trouble was experienced with the Barbary States 
until 1815. 

354. Trouble with Great Britain and France. 1 " 7 — In 1804 



11,7 "In two years, almost the whole carrying trade of Europe was in 
their hands. The merchant flag of every belligerent, except England, dis- 
appeared from the sea. France and Holland absolutely ceased to trade 
under their flags. Spain for a while continued to transport her specie and 
bullion in her own ships, protected by men-of-war, but this too she soon 
gave up, and by 1806 the dollars of Mexico and the ingots of Peru were 
brought to her shores in American bottoms. It was under our flag that the 
gum trade was conducted in Senegal, that the sugar trade was carried on 
with Cuba, that coffee was exported from Caracas, and hides and indigo 
from South America. From Vera Cruz, from Antilles, from Dutch Guiana, 
from the islands of France and Reunion, from Batavia and Manila, great 
fleets of American merchantmen sailed to the United States, there to neutral- 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 219 

Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor of France, and soon 
France and England were engaged in war. On account of this 
Avar, much of the European ocean trade passed over to the 
American merchantmen. This business became very profitable 
to the United States merchantmen, and on this account the 
British people began to look upon us with suspicion and dis- 
pleasure. England wished if possible to regain some of the 
trade she had lost, and in order to do so, in 1806 she declared 
the ports of France to be in a state of blockade. She hoped 
in this way to be able to regain part of the shipping, and at 
the same time cripple her enemy, France. Napoleon replied 
to this by issuing his famous "Berlin Decrees," which prohib- 
ited neutral ships from entering any of the ports of the British 
Isles. The next year, the English issued the ' ' Orders in Coun- 
cil," which forbade neutrals to enter any of the ports of 
Europe except those of Great Britain and Sweden. Napoleon 
replied again by his "Milan Decree," which ordered the cap- 
ture of any neutral ship which had in the past entered any 
English port. 

The student will readily perceive that this state of affairs 
would have soon destroyed the American shipping. Conse- 
quently the government began to make arrangements whereby 
it might protect its merchantmen. 

355. Jefferson's "Gunboat Navy," 1807. — Jefferson believed 
by building small gunboats and fortifying the coast with heavy 
cannon, that the nation would be able to protect our merchant- 
men. This plan was adopted by congress. Heavy artillery was 
placed along the coast and two hundred and fifty gunboats 
were ordered built. However, as the following events will 
show, it soon became apparent that with this means of pro- 
tection the United States would not be able to cope with Great 
Britain and France. 

356. Impressment of American Seamen and Fraudulent Nat- 
uralization. — The English now revised their old declaration, 
by which they claimed they had the right to stop any American 
vessel and search for English seamen. The English claimed that 
"Once an Englishman, always an Englishman," while the 
Americans claimed that when a person had become naturalized 
he was an American citizen, and as such had the right to claim 
the protection of the American nation. 

ize the voyage and then go on to Europe. ' ' McMaster 's History of the 
People of the United States, vol. iii. 



220 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

True, many of the English seamen may have procured fraud- 
ulent naturalization papers and entered the American service 
for the simple reason that they received better wages and were 
accorded better treatment. Oftentimes an English captain 
when ready to sail from an American port, would find that he 
had scarcely enough sailors left to manage the vessel. On 
this account English cruisers were sent to the American coast 
for the express purpose of searching American vessels for de- 
serters. However, the British were very indiscreet and often- 
times committed the grossest outrages, inasmuch as many Am- 
erican seamen were forced into British service. 

357. The Chesapeake and the Embargo Act, 1807- '08.— Af- 
fairs of this nature came to a crisis in 1807, when the United 
States frigate Chesapeake, while sailing off the Chesapeake 
Bay, was fired on by the British frigate, Leopard, and by force 
compelled to give up four men, declared by the British captain 
to be British citizens. Three of these men proved to be American 
citizens, and their seizure was resented in strong terms by cit- 
izens of the United States. 

President Jefferson immediately issued a proclamation for- 
bidding to all British war vessels the privilege of entering Am- 
erican ports. As the British paid no attention to this proclama- 
tion congress, in 1807, passed the embargo act, which prohib- 
ited the departure of any American vessels to foreign ports. 
Although this act certainly affected both Great Britain and 
France, it also was very disastrous to the United States, as it 
practically destroyed all our shipping interests. 

358. The Non-intercourse Act, 1809. — On this account, the 
embargo act was repealed and in its place the non-intercourse 

act was passed, which allowed com- 
merce with all nations except England 
and France. 

359. Washington Irving, the 
Classic Writer of America. — -Wash- 
ington Irving, the first Ameri- 
can author to receive favorable at- 
tention in both continents, was born 
and reared in the vicinity of New 
York. 

To know how successful he has 
been in the presentation of the scenes 
of his boyhood rambles, and the tra- 
washington irving ditional and imaginative beliefs of the 




COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 



221 



early Dutch life in New York, one need but read his History of 
New York, The Sketch Book, Rip Van Wi?ikle, and The Legend 
of Sleepy Hollow. 

Among his many interesting works which have not already 
been mentioned are: Westminster Abbey, Sirat ford-on- Avon, 
Little Britain, Braccbridge Hall, Talcs of a Traveler, and The 
Alhambra. 

By many, Irving is considered as America's greatest classic 
writer. 

360. William Cullen Bryant, the Author. — It was also about 
this time that America's great nature 
poet, William Cullen Bryant, began to 
publish his literary works. 

Quite aptly he has been called "The 
Father of American Poetry," and his 
poems, "Thanatopsis, " "To a Water- 
fowl," and "A Forest Hymn," have 
now become schoolhouse classics. He 
ranks among the foremost of the poets 
and translators of the world. 

361. Ohio Admitted, 1803.— In 1803, 
Ohio, the first state to be carved out of 
the Northwest Territory, was admitted 
to the Union with a population of over forty-five thousand. 

Students will readily realize how rapidly the western country 
was being settled when they remember that fifteen years prior 
to this time the only settlement of any account in Ohio was at 
Marietta. 

362. The Twelfth Amendment. — It will be remembered that 
the first time Jefferson was elected president he was chosen by 
the house of representatives, as he and Burr had received the 
same number of votes. In order that this might not happen 
again, and in order that the president and vice president might 
both be of the same political party, the twelfth amendment of 
the Constitution was passed, which provided that electors should 
vote separately for president and vice president. 

363. The Presidential Election, 1808.— Jefferson refusing a 
third term, the Republicans nominated James Madison of Vir- 
ginia, for president, and George Clinton of New York, for vice 
president. The candidates were elected by a large majority 
over Charles Pinckney and Rufus King, the Federalist candi- 
dates. 




WILLIAM CULLEN 
BRYANT 



DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 
1809-1817 




JAMES MADISON 



364. James Madison, President 1809- '17. — Madison, although 
a statesman of recognized ability, was 
very unfortunate in the selection of his 
cabinet officers as the only man appointed 
to the cabinet who could be recognized as a 
man of distinction or ability, was Albert 
Gallatin, secretary of the treasury. Under 
these circumstances the prospect of a 
successful administration was grave in- 
deed, as the work of the entire execu- 
tive department naturally, had to be at- 
tended to by the president and Mr. 
Gallatin. 

365. Madison's Negotiations. — Being under the non-inter- 
course act our shipping interests were in a serious condition 
and many of our people who had been engaged in commerce 
were forced to enter other pursuits. Manufacturing estab- 
lishments were springing up, and these people, as well as the 
merchants and planters on account of the prevailing condi- 
tions, had a vast amount of merchandise and produce ready 
to be shipped to foreign markets. 

Madison still believed it would be possible to relieve these 
conditions by further negotiations with England and France. 
Through the British minister, Erskine, the president was in- 
formed that if the non-intercourse act was repealed, the British 
nation would make a satisfactory settlement in regard to the 
Chesapeake affair, and that the orders in council, as far as 
they applied to the commerce of the United States, would be 
repealed. Acting on this assurance, the president issued a 
proclamation, giving permission for the renewal of trading 
relations between the United States and Great Britain. In less 
than a month more than a thousand ships laden with American 
produce had sailed for foreign markets, but the British gov- 
ernment disavowed the arrangements which had been made 
with their minister Erskine, on the ground that he had exceeded 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 223 

his authority, and many of the ships and cargoes were cap- 
tured and confiscated by that nation. 

The entire American nation now clamored for war, and the 
president promptly issued another proclamation which re-es- 
tablished the non-intercourse act between the two nations. 

366. Battle of Tippecanoe, 1811. — [Plate 5.] In addition 
to those troubles on the sea and coast, were those of the fron- 
tier. The Indians of the northwest tribes, under the leadership 
of Tecumseh, had formed a confederacy for mutual protection 
against the whites. 

The frontier, on hearing this, became alarmed and General 
William Henry Harrison was sent to disperse the Indians who 
had congregated at Tippecanoe, near the junction of the Wa- 
bash and Tippecanoe rivers. On November 7th, a terrible 
battle was fought in which the Indians were routed with great 
loss. 

Soon after this the Creek Indians attacked the southern 
frontier at Fort Mimms, near the Alabama River [Plate 5], 
and captured and massacred over five hundred men, women 
and children. General Andrew Jackson quickly organized a 
force and marched against these Indians, and on March 27, 
1814, at Horse Shoe Bend, he killed and captured over six hun- 
dred. So complete was the victory that those who survived 
were glad to make peace on any terms. 

367. The War Congress. 108 — From information which had 
reached the administration it was believed by many that the 
Indians had formed these confederations and committed the 
many atrocious acts of cruelty under the direction of secret 
agents of the British government. These troubles, added to 
those of our seamen and ships, aroused the people to such an 
extent that they elected a congress which was strongly in fa- 
vor of war with England. 

los A detailed critical history of the War of 1812 by Captain A. T. 
Mahan of the United States Navy was published in Scribner's Magazine 
for 1904 and January. 1905. Another full and interesting account is that 
of McMaster in the History of the People of the United States, vol. iv, pp. 
1-279. Shorter accounts will be found in McLaughlin 's History of tlie 
American Nation, pp. 281-291; Hart's Formation of the Union, pp. 203-216 
and 218-222; Channing's Student's History of the United States, pp. 357- 
367. Interesting contemporary accounts of the -war or of its diplomatic 
events are given in Hart's Source Booh of American History, nos 83-87, 
inclusive. See also Seawell's Little Jarvis and Midshipman Paulding; G. 
C. Eggleston's Signal Boys, Captain Sam and Big Brother, which are all 
good stories of the War of 1812. 



221 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




JOHN C. CALHOUN 



368. Clay and Calhoun Advise War. 109 — Henry Clay, of 

Kentucky, and John C. Calhoun, of 
South Carolina, two of America's 
greatest statesmen, were members of 
this congress. Clay was made speak- 
er of the house of representatives, 
and under his direction immediate 
preparations were made for war. 

President Madison, now becoming 
convinced that further diplomatic re- 
lations with Great Britain were use- 
Less, recommended to congress the ad- 
visability of declaring war; so fin- 
ally on June 19. 1812, a proclama- 
tion was issued, declaring war 
against Great Britain. 

The reasons set forth for this declaration were as follows: 

1 . Inciting the Indians to attack our citizens on the frontier. 

2. Putting cruisers off our coasts with instructions to stop 
and search our vessels. 

3. Impressment of over six thousand of our seamen in the 
British service. 

4. Interfering with our commercial relations with other na- 
tions by the ' ' Orders of Council. ' ' 

It might be well to note here that just five days after the 
war proclamation was issued, the orders in council were re- 
called, but there being no ocean cables in those days, the news 
did not reach this country until long after the war had ac- 
tually begun. Otherwise the war might have been averted. 

369. Napoleon 11 " and the United States. — The student will 



i09Lossing, B. T., Pictorial Field-look of the War of 1812, 1868-96. 
Roosevelt, Theodore, Naval War of 1812, 18S9. See also Spark's, Expansion; 
Gordy, A Political History; Sargent, Public Men and Events; Wise, Seven 
Decades ; Roosevelt, Winning of the West ; De Tocqueville, Democracy in 
America; Stanwood, History of the Presidency; Morse, John Quincy Adams; 
Curtis, Daniel Webster; Schurz, Henry Clay; Sumner, Andrew Jackson. 

no "Napoleon had in this, three ends to gain, and he gained them all: 
First, to secure France against a renewal of the non-importation act of the 
United States if the president accepted this conditional recall of the de- 
crees as satisfactory; second, to leave those decrees virtually unrepealed, by 
making their recall depend upon the action of England, who, he well knew, 
would not listen to the proposed conditions; and third, to involve the United 
States and England in new disputes which might lead to war." — Gay's 
James Madison. 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 225 

doubtless wonder why Avar was not declared against France 
also, as she was preying on our commerce, probably to a greater 
extent than England. True, both nations should have been 
included in the declaration of war, but Napoleon, by his 
shrewdness and dishonesty, was able to handle affairs so as to 
insure war between the United States and his enemy, England, 
he, at the same time, being able to continue to seize the mer- 
chantmen of the United States as before. 

Napoleon, through his minister of foreign affairs, informed 
the president that the seizure of American ships should cease, 
and commercial relations with the United States be resumed, 
providing the non-intercourse acts were repealed and the 
United States should "cause her rights (the United States.) to 
be respected by England." Acting on this advice, the non- 
intercourse act was repealed, as far as it affected France. Soon 
hundreds of vessels were on their way to France and the 
United States, according to the agreement, was preparing 
for war with England in order to force her to respect the rights 
of the United States. 

Napoleon waited until the vessels had arrived in the ports 
of France, then, inasmuch as the United States as yet had been 
unable to force Great Britain to respect her rights, the ships 
with their cargoes were seized and confiscated. 

By this trick Napoleon was not only assured of war between 
the United States and England, but he also secured much 
needed supplies for his army and navy, and money for his 
treasury. 

370. Relative Strength of the Nations. — England at this 
time had a population of nearly twenty millions of people, a 
large army of well disciplined soldiers, and the largest and 
best equipped navy in the world. On the other hand the 
United States had only about seven millions of people, includ- 
ing servants and slaves, a few thousand poorly equipped sol- 
diers, and a navy of no reputation whatever, consisting of less 
than a dozen frigates, which had never seen service. Further- 
more the people of the United States m were not united in 
reference to the war. AVhile the west and south were in favor 
of the war. the New England States regarded it with absolute 
disfavor. Many were in favor of joining with England in a 

111 Seawell's Little Jarvis and Midshipman Paulding; 0. C. Egoleston 's 
Signal Boys, Captain Sam, ami Big Brother arc all good stories of the 
War of 1812. 

15 



226 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

war against France on account of Napoleon's dishonesty and 
double dealing. Our harbors were unprotected, and it was 
believed that the coast cities, coast country, and coast trade 
would be at the mercy of the enemy. 

371. Plan of 1812.— [Plate 5,] The Americans believed 
that they might invade and capture Canada before England 
could land an army strong enough to protect it. 

With this plan in view, three armies were organized. The 
"Army of the West" under General William Hull was to in- 
vade Canada by way of Detroit. The "Army of the Center" 
under General Solomon Van Rensselaer was to enter Canada 
by way of Niagara; and the "Army of the North" under Gen- 
eral Henry Dearborn was to go by way of Lake Champlain. 

The forces were then to unite and conquer all Canada. 

372. The Plan a Complete Failure.— [Plate 5.] According 
to the plans, General Hull at once started on his way to De- 
troit. 112 While on his way, a message was sent him, notifying 
him that war had been declared and ordering him to invade 
Canada at once. Unfortunately this communication fell into 
the hands of the British, who immediately seized Mackinaw 
and made preparations to meet Hull. Hull, who by this time 
had entered Canada, was driven back to Detroit where, being 
surrounded by a superior force, he not only surrendered his 
army and Detroit, but the whole territory of Michigan. Fort 
Dearborn (now Chicago) also passed into the hands of the 
British. 

General Van Rensselaer, who ascended the Niagara River, 
attacked the Canadian village of Queenstown, but not being 
supported by his militia, was forced to surrender. 

General Dearborn did nothing during the year except drill 
and equip his army. 

373 The Navy and the Privateers. — However great was the 

us There has been a great deal of controversy over Hull's treatment 
by the government. That he was blameworthy in the conduct of his ex- 
pedition against Fort Maiden and in surrendering so soon, all must agree. 
On the other hand, had Madison and Enstis heeded his suggestions the 
year previous, and had Dearborn acted with the dispatch expected of him, 
the circumstances which led to the surrender of Detroit would never have 
occurred. The government was exasperated at its humiliating defeat and 
vented its wrath upon the unfortunate commander, when the real blame 
rested upon the secretary of war, the senior major-general and the military 
policy of Jefferson 's and Madison 's administrations. "Roach and Fowler 's 
United States History, vol. ii. 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 



227 



disappointment, due to the disasters on land, yet this was offset 
in a measure by our glorious victories on the sea. 

Early in August the Constitution (Old Ironsides), 113 while off 
the Banks of Newfoundland, was ataeked by the British vessel 
-— Guerriere (Gar-e-ar). Captain Isaac Hull of the Constitu- 




BATTLE OF THE "CONSTITUTION" AND THE "GUERRIERE" 



tion held his fire until he brought his ship into a position where 
he could pour broadside after broadside into his antagonist. 
Soon the Guerriere was a complete wreck and was forced to 
surrender. 



us The Constitution is one of the most remarkable ships ever connected 
with the navy of the United States, and in the War of 1812 she -won a 
position similar to that accorded the Oregon in the late war with Spain. 
She was launched in 1797, and was constructed after the plans and under 
the supervision of experienced naval officers. In 1830 the old ship was 
reported unseaworthy and ordered to be broken up. On the issuance of this 
order. Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote his famous poem, ' ' Old Ironsides, ' ' 
which was published in the Boston Advertiser. The poem aroused such a 
remonstrance that the order was recalled. The Constitution was rebuilt and 
again entered the service in 1833. In 1855 she was laid up at Portsmouth 
Navy Yard, where she was used as a training ship. She was again partially 
rebuilt in 1877, and the following year made her last trip across the At- 
lantic. In 1897 she was placed permanently in the Boston Navy Yard, and 
is now used for barracks. 



228 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Later, in August, the American sloop Wasp captured the 
British brig Frolic. The Macedonian was next taken by Deca- 
tur's ship, the United States, and the Java was captured by 
the Constitution. Privateers more than justified the expecta- 
tion of Clay and his adherents; they almost destroyed the mer- 
chant marine of Great Britain. During the year nearly three 
hundred and fifty prizes were taken. 

374. Plan of War for 1813. — The general plan of the war in 
1813 was much the same as the preceding year. 

The "Army of the North" was now placed under General 
Wade Hampton. 

General Dearborn, who took command of the "Army of the 
Center," was to enter Canada by way of Niagara and Lake 
Ontario. 

General William Henry Harrison of Tippecanoefame was given 
command of the "Army of the West" and was expected to re- 
gain the territory lost the preceding year by General Hull. 

375. The Shannon Captures the Chesapeake. — [Plate 5.] On 
June 1st, occurred the first great disaster to our navy. On this 
date the American vessel Chesapeake, while sailing off Boston, 
was attacked by the British vessel Shannon. The battle was short 
and decisive, nearly one hundred and fifty of the crew of the 
Chesapeake being killed or wounded. Among the mortally 
wounded was the brave Captain Lawrence. As he was being 
carried below he exclaimed, "Don't give up the ship." The 
last command of the gallant captain has since been, by common 
consent, the motto of the American navy. 

376. General Harrison makes Preparation for the Recovery of 
the Northwest. — [Plate 3.] Previous to the beginning of the 
war, there had been built a chain of "family forts" from the 
mouth of the Missouri River across to the Wabash River at Vin- 
cennes. These "family forts" were blockhouses of one and one- 
half or two stories high, placed at the corners of huge stockades. 
One of the forts was generally built in each vicinity of the homes 
of those who thus "forted" together. Besides these, there were 
other stronger forts such as Fort Dearborn (which had fallen 
into the hands of the British during the preceding year), Fort 
Armstrong at the mouth of Rock River, Fort Madison (now 
Fort Madison, Iowa), and Fort Shelby (Prairie du Chien). 

The Indians were not only making attacks on the "family 
forts," but since the capture of Fort Dearborn they were even 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 229 

making movements against the stronger forts. Consequently 
General Harrison as soon as possible moved against Detroit, 

'411. Indian Massacre at the River Rasin. [Plate 5.] While 
on the march to Detroit, a detachment of Harrison's army un- 
der General Winchester, was attacked by the British and Indians 
under General Proctor at the River Rasin. The American forces 
were obliged to surrender and although they were promised pro- 
tection by General Proctor, yet the Indians massacred almost the 
entire force. General Harrison now fell back to Fort Meigs 
where he was beseiged by Proctor during the winter. In the 
spring he received reinforcements and compelled the British to 
retreat. 

378. Perry on Lake Erie. — [Plate 5.] While Harrison was 
protecting himself aga'inst Proctor at 
Fort Meigs, there was a far differenl 
scene being enacted on the waters of 
Lake Erie. Early in the winter Captain 
Oliver H. Perry was given charge of the 
navy on the Great Lakes, and he at once 
went to work to build, from trees of the 
forest, a fleet with which he expected to 
overcome the British navy on the 
"Lakes." As soon as he had finished 
his fleet, he started out in search of the 
enemy. On September 10th the forces 

commodore o. h. met p erry at once spread to the 
perry breeze his battle flag (a purple pennant 

bearing the words of the dying Law- 
rence, "Don't give up the ship"), and ordered an attack. The 
British, by concentrating their fire upon Perry's flagship (the 
Lawrence) completely disabled her. Perry, with his eight un- 
harmed sailors, thereupon entered a row boat and with their flag 
rowed straight to one of his other ships, the Niagara. 114 Fifteen 
minutes after he had stepped upon the deck of the Niagara, the 
victory was won. Perry at once sent his noted dispatch to Gen- 
eral Harrison. "We have met the enemy and they are ours." 

379. The Battle of the Thames. — As soon as General Harrison 
received this dispatch, he attacked the British and Indians at 
the Thames River. After a fierce engagement, the British forces 
were completely routed. The celebrated Indian chief. Teeumseh, 
was killed and General Proctor barely escaped with his life. 

n4 Bacheller's Dri and I. 




COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 231 

The complete northwest was now recovered and the settle- 
ments were safe from Indian attacks. 

The armies of the center and north did nothing worthy of 
note during this year. 

380. The United States Acts on the Defensive, 1814.— On 
account of the rapid decline of the Napoleonic power in Europe, 
England, in 1814, was able to transfer many of the veteran 
troops of Wellington to the seat of war in the western continent. 
On this account the United States was forced to act on the de- 
fensive. 

381. British Plans for 1814.— [Plate 5.] The British now 
planned to prosecute the war with great energy and conse- 
quently planned three distinct campaigns. 

1. An invasion of the United States from Canada. 

2. A complete blockade of the Atlantic coast and the capture 
of Washington, the capital of the United States. 

3. The capture of the city of New Orleans, which they be- 
lieved would give them control of the Mississippi River. 

382. Campaigns in the North. — [Plate 5.] On account of 
the new recruits which the British had received, they were able 
to take immediate possession of all the northern frontier. Gen- 
eral Jacob Brown and General Winfield Scott were at once dis- 
patched to regain this territory. On the 3d of July General 
Browm captured Fort Erie ; on July 5th General Scott in a 
severe battle defeated the British at Chippew r a, and forced them 
to retire to Queenstown. Here the Americans, finding the 
British to be strongly intrenched, returned to Chippewa. The 
British followed, and on July 25th, at Lundy's Lane, another 
severe battle was fought, the Americans being victorious. Al- 




XAVAL BATTLE OF LAKK CHAMPLAIN IN PLATTSBURG BAY 



232 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

though victorious the Americans were completely exhausted, 
and being unable to follow up their victory, retired to Fort Erie. 

383. The Lake Champlain Conflict and the Battle of Platts- 
burg. — [Plate 5.] The British were now determined to capture 
northern New York. Consequently preparations were made 
to invade this state by way of Lake Champlain. General George 
Prevost, with an army fourteen thousand strong, started 
from Canada up the Champlain Valley, following nearly 
the same route as that pursued by Burgoyne in 1777. He had 
planned to unite his forces with those of the British fleet on 
the lake and hoped to be able to divide the New England States 
from the rest of the Union. There being a strong feeling against 
the war in those states, it was believed that people would at 
once join the cause of the British. However, the venture proved 
very disastrous for at the battle of Plattsburg the land forces 
were so badly beaten that they were glad to be able to retreat 
to the valley of the St. Lawrence, while the naval contest in 
Plattsburg Bay resembled very much the brilliant exploit of 
Perry on Lake Erie, as nearly every British vessel was either 
captured or destroyed. 

These two battles caused the British government seriously to 
consider proposals for peace. 

384. War on the Coast. — [Plate 5.] During the year, the 
British blockaded our coast to such an extent that our com- 
merce was completely destroyed. Many coast towns in Massa- 
chusetts and Connecticut were captured and burned. Crops 
were destroyed and the inhabitants murdered in cold blood. 
General Ross with a force of five thousand men entered the 
Chesapeake Bay, marched up the Potomac, to the city of Wash- 
ington, where, on August 24th he set fire to the capitol 115 and 
White House and destroyed nearly all the public records. He 
then moved upon Baltimore where, on September 13th, simultan- 
eously with the fleet, he attacked the city and Fort McHenry. 110 

11 5 Eoosevelt's Naval War, ch. vii; Hildreth, vi. 

no The bombardment of Fort McHenry gave us the "Star Spangled 
Banner," next to "America," our most popular national hymn. Francis 
Scott Key had gone under a flag of truce in a small boat to the British 
frigate Surprise, to secure the release of a friend. He reached the frigate 
just as the bombardment was to commence, and was not allowed to return; 
therefore, as prisoner of war, he was obliged to witness the bombardment, 
which continued through the night. When, on the following morning, Key 
saw the flag still waving over the fort he wrote the poem. A few days later 
it was published in the Baltimore Patriot, under the title, "The Defense of 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 233 

Being unsuccessful by both land and water, he retired to his 
ships and sailed to Jamaica. 

385. The Hartford Convention, December 15, 1814.— The 
Federalists of New England had from the beginning opposed 
the war with England, and now on account of the complete 
destruction of their coast trade, they were more out-spoken 
than ever before. On December 15, 1814, delegates from Massa- 
chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut met in secret conven- 
tion at Hartford. While it is not known exactly what trans- 
pired in this convention, yet at that time it was generally be- 
lieved that these states intended to secede from the Union. 

On account of this general belief, the Hartford convention 
led to the complete overthrow of the Federalist party. 

38G. Treaty of Ghent, December 24, 1814. — England having 
signified a desire for peace, President Madison appointed as 
peace commissioners John Quincy Adams, James A. Bayard, 
Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell, and Albert Gallatin. These 
gentlemen met with the commissioners of England, at Ghent. 
in the Netherlands, July 6 1814. Finally, after five months 
of patient work, on December 24. 1814. peace was concluded 
between the two nations. 

387. Battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1815. — 
[Plate 5.] There being no telegraph communication between 
the two continents, it was some time before the news of the treaty 
of peace reached this country. In the meantime there was fought 
one of the greatest battles of the war. England had decided if 
possible to capture New Orleans, and in order to do this, had 
ordered to that place over fifty ships carrying twenty thousand 
soldiers and seamen, all of whom had seen service under Welling- 
ton and Nelson. This army was under the command of Paken- 
ham, a brother-in-law of Wellington. 

On December 10th the army landed and in the early morning 
of January 8th they appeared before the city of New Orleans 
in line of battle. To oppose this army General Jackson had col- 
lected a motley array of about six thousand men consisting of 
frontiersmen, Creoles. Indians, negroes, sailors and a few regu- 
lar soldiers. 



Fort McHenry. At Key's suggestion, the song was set to the tune of 
" Anacreon in Heaven," which some fifteen years before had been used for 
the song, "Adams and Liberty. ' ' The music was composed by John Stafford 
Smith, an Englishman, some time between 1770 and 1775. The "Star 
Spangled Banner'' was first sung by Ferdinand Durang in a Baltimore 
tavern. Roach and Fowler, United States Tliflnry, vol. ii. 



234 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




MONUMENT ERECTED NEAR NEW 
ORLEANS, TO THE MEMORY OF 
ANDREW JACKSON AND "THE BAT- 
TLE OP NEW ORLEANS." 



The British were so con- 
fident of victory that they 
had with them their civil 
officers who were to exe- 
cute the laws as soon as 
the city was captured. 
Evidently they did not 
realize the fact that the 
men who composed the 
American army were the 
best marksmen in the 
world, and w T ere fighting 
for a principle in which 
they were all interested. 
Early in the morning 
the British moved against 
the American lines. Gen- 
eral Jackson had arrang- 
ed his men behind breastworks made from logs, earth, and cotton 
bales, and as he walked along cheering his men, he instructed 
them to make every shot count. How carefully they followed 
this instruction may be realized wdien it is learned that by nine 
o'clock the battle was over, the English losing in killed, wounded 
and captured over twenty-six hundred, while the Americans lost 
but eight killed, thirteen wounded, and a very few captured. 

The news of this great victory astonished all Europe and al- 
though the treaty of peace was signed, this battle doubtless did 
much in causing foreign nations to recognize us as one of the 
foremost of nations. 

388. War with Algiers, 1815. — Taking advantage of our 
trouble with England, the Barbary States again began preying 
upon our commerce. As soon as the war between the United 
State and Great Britain had closed, Commodore Decatur was 
dispatched to deal with these pirate states. After capturing 
several Algerian ships, the haughty ruler of Algiers was com- 
pelled to sign a treaty, whereby he not only agreed forever to 
disclaim any right to tribute from the United States, but he also 
agreed to pay indemnities for seizures made in violation of prev- 
ious treaties. 

A similar understanding was made with Tunis and Tripoli, 
and no serious trouble has since been experienced with these 
states 



COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 235 

389. The Second United States Bank, 1816.— On account of 
the recent wars, the finances of the country were in a deplorable 
condition. The national debt was over one hundred and twenty- 
seven millions of dollars. Commerce was almost ruined, and 
gold and silver money had almost ceased to be a circulating 
medium. 

In order to restore this condition, congress, in 1816, chartered 
the second United States Bank with a capital of $35,000,000. 
According to the charter, the bank was to have branches in 
different parts of the United States, in which public funds 
might be deposited. This did much to restore the normal finan- 
cial condition in the country. 

390. The First Protective Tariff, 1816.— During the war, on 
account of the complete destruction of our shipping and com- 
merce, many manufacturing establishments were established, 
especially in tbe New England states. In the European coun- 
tries manufactured articles had been stored away on account 
of the destruction of merchant marine, due to the Napoleonic 
wars. In 1815, when the commercial relations were again re- 
stored between the United States and England, this material 
was thrown on the American markets in great quantities, and 
at such cheap prices that it was impossible for the manufacturing 
establishments of New England to compete with them, conse- 
quently in response to a plea of the citizens of the United States 
concerned in manufacturing, congress, in 1816, passed the first 
distinctive protective tariff, the highest rates not being over 
twenty per cent. 

391. New States. — During the administration two new states 
had been admitted into the "Union." Louisiana as the 
eighteenth state was admitted in 1812, and Indiana 117 the nine- 
teenth state was admitted in 1816. The constitution of each of 
these states permitted slavery. 

392. Presidential Election, 1816. — President Madison had now 
served two terms, and following the custom already established, 
was not a candidate for a third term. On account of the happy 
ending of the war, the party in power was still very popular, 
while the Federalists were very unpopular on account of the 
Hartford convention. James Monroe, the Democratic-Republican 
candidate, was elected by one hundred and eighty-three votes 
against thirty-four votes for Rufns King, the Federalist candidate. 

in Tarkington, The Gentleman from Indiana) Eggleston, The Circuit 
Eider, The Hoosier Schoolmaster, and The Eoosier School Boy. 



THIRTY YEARS PEACE, 1815-1845 

DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 
1817-1825 




JAMES MONROE 



393. James Monroe, President, 1817-1825.— President Mon- 
roe's administration marks the begin- 
ning- of an ' ' era of good feeling, ' ' and 
national growth. Noticeable and rap- 
id advancement was made in all lines. 
The people, now believing themselves 
free from all foreign entanglements, 
turned their attention to home indus- 
tries and internal improvements. 

394. The Seminole War, 1818.— 
[Plate 5.] It will be remembered 
that in 1814 General Jackson defeated 
the Creek Indians 118 at Horseshoe 
Bend. [Section 366.] The remnant 
of the tribe escaped south into Florida 
and settled with the Seminole Indians. 
These Indians were friendly toward England and believed that 
after the war England would again restore to them their old 
hunting grounds. When they realized that the United States 
had been victorious in the war they became desperate and began 
to steal stock, burn the houses and barns, and murder the people 
all along our southern border. To restore order General Jack- 
son was sent against these Indians, and regardless of the fact 
that the Indians were on Spanish soil, he boldly marched against 
them, completely destroying their power. 

395. The United States Buys Florida.— [Plate 9.] On ac- 
count of this trouble, the United States was eager to get con- 
trol of Florida and in 1819 a treaty was made with Spain by 
which Florida was transferred to the United States and the 
dispute settled regarding the western boundary of the Louisiana 
Purchase. According to this treaty, this boundary line extended 
from the Gulf of Mexico up the Sabine Piver to the 32d par- 

nsgchoulor, ii; Hildreth, vi ; McMaster, iv. 



THIRTY YEARS PEACE 237 

allel; thence in a direct northern line to the Red River; thence 
up this river to the 100th Meridian ; thence northward to the 
Arkansas River; thence along the south bank of this river to 
its source in latitude 42 ; thence due west to the Pacific Ocean. 
In accordance with the treaty the United States paid to Spain 
$5,000,000.00. 

396. The Canadian Boundary Line and the Oregon Coun- 
try. — During the year 1818 the boundary line between Canada 
and the United States was established. Beginning at the most 
northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods, the boundary 
line extended directly south to the 19th parallel ; thence west- 
ward along this parallel to the summit of the Rocky Mountains. 
Beyond the mountains the country was open to the settlers of 
both nations for ten years. This agreement was afterward ex- 
tended until definite lines were drawn in 1846. [Section 469.] 

397. The Nation Honors its Heroes. — The United States was 
now at peace with all nations, and the people, appreciative of the 
services of those who had made this condition possible, pre- 
sented to the public many proofs of the high esteem in which these 
heroes were held. Great artists were at work painting such histo- 
ric scenes as "Patrick Henry before the House of Burgesses" 
[see picture under Section 2021 and "Washington Crossing the 
Delaware" [see picture under Section 238] . In 3 824 this nation, 
assisted by the venerable and aged Lafayette, who was at this 
time visiting the United States as a guest of the nation (Section 
405), with appropriate services placed the corner-stone of the 
Bunker Hill monument. 

398. The Rapid Development of the West. — As has already 
been stated [Section 52 ct seq.] the two things that stood in the 
way of western expansion were the Indians and the lack of 
roads through the mountains. These two obstructions had now 
been eliminated to a great extent. General Harrison and Gen- 
eral Jackson had broken the power of ail the great Indian 
tribes east of the Mississippi River and the Cumberland National 
Road had been built to Wheeling on the Ohio River. Emigrants 
could by this road reach the Ohio River, and then by water they 
could go to the valley of any part of the Mississippi and Ohio 
river systems. On account of these rich and productive valleys, 
the people from New England and the northern states, along 
with a vast foreign emigration, began to move westward. 

399. Many States are Admitted. — On account of this rapid 
development of this western country, many states soon applied 



238 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

for admission into the Union. Mississippi was admitted in 1817, 
Illinois in 1818, and Alabama in 1819. 

400. The United States Senate and Slavery. — The north, hav- 
ing grown so much faster in population than the south, had a 
much larger representation in the house of representatives than 
the south. Having no particular use for slavery in the north, 
the people, of course, were naturally opposed to the extension of 
slavery. The only way the south could hope to overcome anti- 
slavery legislation, was by keeping the representation in the 
senate evenly divided between the slave and free states. 

Up to this time, there were eleven slave states and eleven free 
states, giving each side twenty-two senators. Maine and Missouri 
now applied for admission into the Union. Missouri w T ished to 
be admitted with a constitution allowing slavery, but the north 
was determined that no more slave states should be carved out 
of the Louisiana Purchase. 

401. The Missouri Compromise of 1820. — The debate became 
very heated in congress. It seemed for a 
time that there would be no understand- 
ing reached whatever. Finally Henry 
Clay came forward with his Missouri com- 
promise, which provided that (1) Maine 
was to be admitted as a free state ; (2) Mis- 
souri was to come into the Union as a slave 
state: (3) that all the remaining territory 
in the Louisiana Purchase north of 36 

Vv V W* degrees and 30 minutes (the southern 
boundary of Missouri) should be forever 
free. After much debate, the compromise 
was adopted, Maine, in 1820, being ad- 
mitted as a free state, and Missouri in 1821 being admitted as a 
slave state. 

This left the representation in the senate still equal. 

402. James Fenimore Cooper, Author of the American Novel 
of Adventure. — Just a few months after Washington's inaug- 
uration, September 15, 1789, there was born at Burlington, New 
Jersey, a boy who in later years so vividly described the experi- 
ences and adventures of the people of this period that he is 
recognized as the American novelist of adventure. 

Soon after his birth his parents removed to the forest near 
the shores of the beautiful Shelling Lake in New York. Here in 
the grandeur of nature he spent his childhood making the ac- 




THIRTY YEARS PEACE 



239 




JAMES FENIMORE 
COOPER 



quaintanee of trappers and men who had fought in the Indian 

wars. After receiving a good educa- 
tion he became a seaman on the Great 
Lakes and the ocean, and later an 
officer in the navy. The vast store of 
information he gained from these 
different sources, coupled with a fer- 
tile imagination, made it possible for 
him to produce fiction which was 
realistic as well as interesting. 

The Leatherstocking Tales are 
doubtless the most widely read of all 
his works. 

403. The Holy Alliance and the 
Monroe Doctrine, 1823. — On account 
of the prevailing tendency in many nations of rebellion arising 
against the different governments, there had, in Europe, been 
formed what is known as the holy alliance. This alliance was 
composed of Russia, Austria, Prussia, Prance, and Spain, and 
the real aim was to suppress all disturbances along the line of a 
revolution or rebellion. 

Following in the footsteps of the United States many of the 
Spanish-American colonies had thrown off the yoke of the 
mother country. 

It was believed that the holy alliance was about to aid Spain 
in an effort to recover these colonies. England had not joined 
in this arrangement, but instead proposed to the United States 
the expediency of acting in concert in opposition to the holy al- 
liance in this affair. This the United States refused to do but in 
1823, in a message to congress, the president announced: 

1. That it was the purpose of the United States to remain 
neutral in the political affairs of Europe ; 

2. That any attempt by European governments to extend 
their monarchial system would be regarded as an unfriendly 
act; 

3. That the time for colonization in free and independent 
American countries by European powers had passed ; 

4. There was to be no intervention by any of the foreign 
nations in the political affairs of the Spanish-American repub- 
lics. 

The thought expressed in the above statements became known 
as the Monroe doctrine. It was simply a mild way the president 



240 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

had in telling the European nations that as far as the western 
continent was concerned, they must keep hands off. 

President Roosevelt, in his speech given in Chicago in October, 
1903. makes this very plain in the following statement : 

"This doctrine has nothing to do with the commercial rela- 
tions of any American power, save that it in truth allows each 
of them to form such as it desires We do not guar- 
antee any state against punishment if it misconducts itself, pro- 
viding that punishment does not take the form of the acquisition 
of territory by any non-American power. ' ' 

This doctrine, although not a law, has become a part of our 
administrative policy and has been asserted : 

1. By Tyler, on September 30, 1842. 

2. By Polk, on December 2, 1845. 

3. By Polk, on December 7, 1847. 

4. By Polk, on April 29, 1848. 

5. By Buchanan, on December 6, 1858. 
6 By Buchanan, on December 3, 1860. 

7. By Grant, on May 31, 1870. 

8. By Grant, on December 5, 1870. 

9. By Cleveland, on December 17. 1895. 

Since Cleveland's administration, the Monroe doctrine has 
been referred to on numerous occasions. 

404. The Tariff of 1824.— Tn 1824 the manufacturers of the 
northern states again petitioned congress for a higher protective 
tariff. 

The discussion of this measure was peculiar, as was the case 
in the tariff of 1816, inasmuch as Clay, from the southern state 
of Kentucky, was the leader in favor of the bill, while Webster, 
from the northern state of Massachusetts, vigorously opposed it. 
The vote, when taken, was found to be sectional, the South 
voting against the measure, on the ground that it enriched the 
manufacturers at the expense of the agriculturists, and the North 
voting solidly for the measure on the ground that higher tariff 
was necessary in order that the home manufacturers might com- 
pete with foreign manufacturers. The measure became a law by 
a very small majority. 

405. Visit of Lafayette in 1824. — After forty years absence. 
Lafayette, the French hero of the Revolutionary War, visited 
for the last time the scene of the conflicts which he so generously 
undertook in behalf of American liberty. During this time the 



THIRTY YEARS PEACE 241 

nation had grown from a confederation of colonies with no gov- 
ernment, to one of the foremost nations in the world. 

The prevailing prosperity and the memory of the dangers 
and hardships which Lafayette had undertaken in behalf of 
the young republic made his visit an occasion of great interest. 

He was received as the nation's guest and received the homage 
of a grateful people. When the time arrived for his departure 
to his native land he was presented, in behalf of his services 
during the Revolutionary War, a gift of two hundred thousand 
dollars and a township of land in Florida. 

He was carried home in one of our new naval vessels, the 
Brandywine, named from the battle in which he so honorably 
conducted himself in behalf of American liberty. 

406. The Presidential Election. — President Monroe's second 
term was now drawing to a close and when the time came to 
choose his successor, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, General 
Jackson, and William H. Crawford entered the field as candi- 
dates. No one receiving a majority of the popular vote, the 
election went to the House of Representatives where John Quincy 
Adams was chosen President. 

This election proved a death blow to the custom of nominating 
candidates for president by the congressional caucus. 



NATIONAL REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1825-1829 




«'^ 



JOHN QUINCY 
ADAMS 



407. John Quincy Adams, 1825-1829. — The new president was 
probably as well qualified to fill the posi- 
tion of executive of the United States as 
any man who had ever been elected to 
that place. He was a graduate of one 
of our best colleges, an able lawyer, an 
experienced and distinguished diplomatist, 
and a man acquainted at home and abroad. 
His father, the second president of the 
United States, was still living, and must 
have been pleased to know that his son 
had been elected to this high and respected 
position. 

408. The Death of Thomas Jefferson 
and John Adams. — On July 4, 1826, just fifty years after 
the adoption of the declaration of independence, Thomas 
Jefferson, the man who wrote that immortal document, 
and John Quincy Adams, the man who made it pos- 
sible for its adoption, both passed away. No doubt that the 
death of these two presidents, on the anniversary of the adoption 
of the declaration of independence, has given to our independ- 
ence day an additional meaning. 

409. The Erie Canal, 1825. 119 — [Plate 5.] During this admin- 
istration, every branch of industry seemed to increase in pros- 
perity. In 1825 the Erie Canal, connecting the Hudson River 
with the waters of the Great Lakes, was completed. This great 
undertaking was the work of the state of New York, and by 
many it was deemed to be impracticable. It was mainly through 
the efforts and energy of De Witt Clinton that the canal was 
built. He believed that by this canal the markets of New York 
and Europe would be in reach of the products of the Ohio and 
Mississippi Valleys. 

us This canal, three hundred and sixty-three miles in length, connects 
the waters of Lake Erie with those of the Hudson. The canal is still in 
use and is of great commercial value. 



THIRTY YEARS PEACE 



243 



...i^ v ^ n 




TRANSPORTATION ON THE ERIE CANAL 



Wfeiri 







— .— - ? S , 

' i 

; "--' %- .-■■-■,.- ■ - - 

AN EARLY RAILROAD TRAIN 



244 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

410. The Introduction of the Steam Railroad 120 in the United 
States. — Although the canals did much to solve the question of 
transportation, yet this method was necessarily slow and tedious. 
Consequently people began to seek for swifter and more con- 
venient means. 

In 1829 the Delaware and Hudson Railroad, in the state of 
New York, placed an English engine (the Lion) on their road. 
Three years later two more engines, built by Robert Stephenson, 
were placed on the railroad which ran "from New Castle to 
Prenchtown. 

When these two locomotives landed at New Castle in Delaware, 
Mr. Matthias W. Baldwin was employed by the company to put 
them in running condition. While performing this work, he 
gained considerable information which he put into practical use, 
for in 1832 he built a locomotive for the railroad which ran be- 
tween Philadelphia and Germantown. This engine was known 
as "Old Ironsides." Soon other engines were put into service, 
and the railroads began to supersede the steam boats for passen- 
ger travel, and the canal for the heavy transportation. 

411. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Author. — Nathaniel Hawthorne 
was the only son of a Salem sea captain. 
At the early age of four he was left 
fatherless. With his mother he moved 
to a home on Herbert Street, where the 
family lived a sad and secluded life. 
When he was about the age of twelve 
the family removed to a lonely place 
near Sebago Lake in Maine. Here he 

^formed the habits of solitude which were 
so noticeable in his after life. From 
this time through his entire life there 
Nathaniel haw- would be months together when he 
thorne scarcely held any intercourse with peo- 

ple outside of his own family. This kind of life is plainly notice- 
able in his writings and probably had much to do with the pure- 
ness and simplicity of the same. 

His works are especially pleasing to children and young peo- 
ple, and among the best known are Twice-Told Tales, Grand- 

120 Interesting data are given in Encyclopaedia Americana, vol. iv, p. 
296. An admirable short essay on the railroads and their functions ap- 
pears in Shaler's The United States of America, vol. ii, pp. 65-131. See 
also Brown 's History of the First Locomotives in America. 




THIRTY YEARS PEACE 



245 



father's Chair, Biographical Stories for Children, Moses from 
an Old Manse, The Scarlet Letter, The House of the Seven 
Gables, A Wonder Book, and Tanglewood Tales. 

He died in 1864 and is buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in 
Concord, near the large rock [see picture under Section 430] 
which marks the grave of Emerson. 

412. The Tariff of Abominations, 1828. — Owing to a change 
in the protective policy of England, imported woolen fabrics 
became so cheap in the United States that the home manufac- 
turers asked for additional protection, and a bill which raised 
the tariff on woolen fabrics was presented to congress. 

The opponents to this bill, seeing that it was impossible to 
defeat it, made the duties unreasonably high hoping thereby to 
make the bill as obnoxious as possible. It finally became a 
law. but the rates were so alarmingly high that it was known 
as the Tariff of Abominations. 

So extremely unpopular was it in the south, that the vice presi- 
dent, John C. Calhoun of South ( iarolina in 1830 declared that 
any state had the right to decide whether an act of congress was 
constitutional or not. He thus launched forth his doctrine of 
state rights or nullification based upon the ground that the act 
was unconstitutional. 

413. The Presidential Election of 1828.— Hardly had Adams 
assumed the duties of president when 
Jackson began his second campaign. He 
succeeded in forming an organization in 
opposition to the administration which 
completely put an end to the "era of good 
feeling." When the time arrived for the 
election, party lines were closely drawn. 
The spirit of contest was more pronounced 
than had ever been known. 

AVhen the votes were counted it was 
found that Jackson had been elected by 
a large majority. 




DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1829-1837 

414. Andrew Jackson President, 1829- '37. 121 — On March 15, 
1767, at Waxhaw Settlement, North Carolina, in a rough, low, un- 
couth house of logs was born Andrew Jackson. In less than a 
month from this time the widowed mother was forced to leave 
this miserable habitation and in order to support herself and 
her three young sons, went to work as a domestic at the home 
of a brother-in-law. With the ambition and self-sacrifice of a 
mother, she worked to support the family. At an early age An- 
drew was placed in school and made rapid progress in his 
studies. 

Some time after Andrew had entered this school the Revolu- 
tionary War broke out. One of the boys soon lost his life fight- 
ing for his country, and the other two boys became prisoners of 
the heartless and pitiless Tarleton. Andrew was about fourteen 
years old, and because he was a prisoner of war and refused to 
clean the boots of the haughty Tarleton he was severely wounded 
by that officer's sword. The two boys were now sent as prison- 
ers to Camden, where they were taken with the smallpox. The 
mother hastened thither and arranged for their exchange. She 
took them home where Andrew recovered and his brother died. 
After Andrew's recovery his motber hastened to the Charleston 
prison ships as a nurse, where she was taken with ship fever 
and died. 

Andrew, now at the age of fifteen, was without father, mother 
or brothers. He knew however that it had been his mother's 
wish that he should get an education, and so he devoted him- 
self to study. At the age of eighteen he began to study law and 
at the age of twenty-one was public prosecutor of the western 

121 Reference Books (Jackson to Buchanan, inclusive): W. Wilson's 
Division and Reunion, eb. 1-8; W. C. Bryant and Gay, United States (re- 
vised edition), iv, 291-434; W. Macdonald, Jaclcsonian Democracy; A. B. 
Hart, Slavery and Abolition; G. P. Garrison, Westward Extension; T. C. 
Clarke, Fartics and Slavery; F. E. Chadwick, Causes of the Civil War, ch. 
1-17; J. B. McMaster, United Staies, v, 523-556, vi; A. B. Hart, American 
History by Contemporaries, iii eh. 24-29; iv ch. 2-7; A. B. Hart, Source 
Bool; ch. 15-17; J. Schouler, United States, iii, ch. xiii; iv; v; classified 
list of books in the Appendix. 



THIRTY YEARS PEACE 247 

district of North Carolina (now Tennessee). At twenty-nine he 
was elected to the United States house of representatives, and at 
thirty to the senate of the United States; at thirty-one he took 
the judgeship of the supreme court of Tennessee, and at thirty- 
seven he was made major-general of the militia of his state ; at 
forty-six he was engaged in war against the Creeks at Fort 
Minims; at forty-eight, at the battle of New Orleans, he put to 
flight the veteran troops which had captured Napoleon at 
Waterloo ; at fifty he put to flight the Seminole Indians of 
Georgia and Alabama; at fifty-two he served as governor of 
his state, and at fifty-six he was again sent by his state to the 
senate of the United States. Finally at sixty-one, after a long 
and honorable life spent in behalf of his country, he was elected 
to the presidency of the United States. This record of a poor 
orphan boy is certainly worthy of emulation. 

415. Kitchen Cabinet. — Jackson, having been nominated by 
the state legislatures and elected by a large popular majority, 
was necessarily the first president of the people. He was a 
self-made man and as such, introduced many of his own ideas 
in his administration. 

Previous to this time the president had relied for advice upon 
his cabinet officers, but Jackson abolished this counsel entirely 
and instead he counselled with a few chosen men, some of whom 
were in the cabinet, while the most were simply his close frinds 
or associates. This group of individuals practically controlled 
the policy of the administration and in history is known as 
"Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet." 

416. The Spoils System. — Another innovation introduced at 
this time was the practice of removing from office all those who 
were not of tbe same political faith as the president. This began 
in the removal of the cabinet officers, and was finally extended 
until it included even the postmasters. Before the middle of 
his first term Jackson had practically filled all public offices 
with men of his own party. 

The president evidently believed that in order to succeed in 
his administration as president it was necessary for him to place 
the responsible offices in the hands of his friends. 

417. Jackson and the United States Bank. — According to the 
charter and a resolution of congress, tbe funds could be removed 
from the United States Bank only by the secretary of the treas- 
ury with the sanction of congress. 

The president, who wished to destroy tbe bank, resorted to 



248 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

another plan in order to remove the deposits. On his own re- 
sponsibility he ordered William J. Duane, secretary of the treas- 
ury, to deposit the funds in certain state banks instead of the 
United States Bank. As it was necessarry to withdraw the 
funds already in the bank in order to meet the current expenses 
of the government, Jackson expected by this order soon to re- 
move the funds from the bank. Secretary Duane refusing to 
comply with the request, Jackson removed him and appointed 
Roger B. Taney, who proceeded to comply with the president's 
request. This action, with Jackson's veto of the new charter in 
1836, put an end to the United States Bank. 

418. Wild Cat State Banks.— The national debt at this time 
was fully paid and as there was no United States Bank congress 
ordered the surplus to be distributed among the banks of the 
different states. Soon state banks were springing up in every 
small village, each eager to receive its share of the surplus. 
These banks also issued "paper money" which made money 
very plentiful. 

410. Jackson and the "Specie Circular," 1836. — The bankers 
having plenty of money, made very liberal terms in their loans. 
This led to speculation in government land, which at this time 
could be bought for one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre. 
When the payments became due Jackson found that they were 
made in paper money. He realized that the banks issuing the 
money might fail, then the government would necessarily be the 
loser, as the money received in payment would be worthless. He 
therefore issued his famous "Specie Circular," which instructed 
the government land agents to receive nothing but gold and sil- 
ver in payment for public lands. 

420. The Panic of 1837. — In order to meet this new require- 
ment there became a great demand for specie. The people pre- 
sented the "paper money" to the banks for redemption in gold 
and silver, but many banks had issued this money in excess to 
the specie they had on hand, consequently they could not meet 
this demand and therefore "failed." Then commercial associa- 
tions of all kinds became bankrupt, the laboring classes were 
thrown out of emploj^ment, and great distress prevailed. 

421. The Great Webster-Hayne Debate, 1830.— The tariff was 
,-a very serious question at this time. Vice President Calhoun's 
spokesman in the senate was Robert Y. Hayne. In 1830 from 
his desk in the senate chamber, Hayne declared: 

"That each state is a sovereign power and the constitution is 




THIRTY YEARS PEACE 249 

but a compact, from which any state may withdraw and govern 
itself if it prefers to do so. ' ' 

Hayne was answered by Daniel Web- 
ster, senator from Massachusetts, in one of 
the greatest speeches in the English lan- 
guage, which was in itself proof that love 
and respect for the Union had increased 
very much since Washington's administra- 
tion. 

422. Tariff of 1832.— In 1832, however, 
another tariff bill was passed, which reduc- 
ed the rate to that of 1824, but this bill 
failed to satisfy the south. Acting in ac- 
daniel webstbr cor dance with the nullification doctrine of 
Calhoun and ITayne [Section 412], the 
people of South Carolina at a convention in Columbia, November 
19, 1832, declared the tariff of 1828 and that of 1832, null and 
void in the state of South Carolina after February 1, 1833. 

423. Jackson and Nullification. — The president, as was his 
habit, acted quickly and effectively. He at once issued a procla- 
mation declaring : 

1 . That the Constitution did not form a league but a govern- 
ment. 

2. That "nullification" was unconstitutional and revo- 
lutionary : 

3. That he would enforce the laws without fear or favor. 

In order that he might be able to enforce the laws, he at once 
sent General Scott and two Avar vessels with troops to Charles- 
ton to aid the officers in the collection of the revenue. 

424. Clay's Compromise Tariff of 1833.— Henry Clay, the 
"Great Pacificator," now came forward with one of his tariff 
compromises. The bill provided that the tariff should be grad- 
ually lowered until the year 1842, when it should reach the level 
of twenty per cent. 

This bill, with a mixture of threat and persuasion, caused the 
nullifiers to yield and became a law. 

From this time, the tariff became a party issue instead of an 
economic question. 

425. Second Seminole War. — For some time there had been 
trouble between the Cherokees and the state of Gorgia. The 
president ruled that Georgia possessed the right to extend her 
municipal jurisdiction over the Indians. The case was carried 



250 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to the supreme court, and this court decided that the state of 
Georgia had no such authority. President Jackson replied by 
saying: 

"John Marshall (the chief justice) has made his decision, now 
let him enforce it. ' ' 

The Indians had to yield to their fate and in 3834 were removed 
to the territory west of the Mississippi River. 

Later a part of the Seminole tribe returned to Florida, and 
for ten years a sort of frontier war was carried on which, before 
it was ended, cost the government over $20,000,000.00, besides 
many lives. 

426. The Black Hawk War.— Black Hawk was chief of the 
SaC and Fox tribes along the upper Mississippi. In 1830 Keokuk 
and others signed a treaty in which it was agreed that the Sac 
and Fox Indians should remove to territory west of the Missis- 
sippi River. Black Hawk was not a party to the treaty and so 
refused to give up the land. In the spring of 1832 hostilities be- 
gan and continued until August when Black Hawk was cap- 
tured. His capture, of course, closed the war. 122 

427. Literature. — It may be said with truth that Jackson's 
administration was the beginning of a period of great exertion 
along the line of American fiction, for in fact, the most of our 
American authors began their work about this time. 

428. Edgar Allan Poe. — The first of several American writers 

122 i n the spring of 1832 hostilities were begun between Black Hawk 
and the whites, and the Black Hawk War followed. 

The then far west became alarmed. Illinois was the center of interest. 
General Scott was sent with the regulars to Chicago (Fort Dearborn), and 
Governor Reynolds called out several companies of volunteers. The point 
of rendezvous was for a time at John Dixon's Ferry, across Bock River 
(now the town of Dixon, with about 4,000 inhabitants), Illinois. (Dixon 
was called by the Indians Nachusa or White Head.) Here were camped, 
amongst other officers under command of General Atkinson, Lieutenant- 
Colonel (afterward president) Zachary Taylor, Lieutenant (afterward 
major and general) Robert Anderson, Lieutenant (afterward Senator) 
Jefferson Davis, Lieutenant (afterward major-general) David Hunter, and 
Private (afterward president) Abraham Lincoln of Captain Iles's company 
of Illinois Mounted Rangers. Major Anderson called upon President Lin- 
coln in April, 1861, after the evacuation of Fort Sumter. Mr. Lincoln said, 
"Major, do you remember of ever meeting me before?" "No, sir; I have 
no recollection of ever having had that pleasure. " " My memory is better 
than yours, then," replied Mr. Lincoln. "You mustered me into the United 
States service as a high private of the Illinois volunteers at Dixon 's Ferry 
in tlic Black Hawk War." Chicago Historical Society's Publications, no. 
10, p. 15. 



THIRTY YEARS PEACE 



251 



mi 



who appeared at about this time was Edgar Allan Poe, aud the 
history of his life is probably the saddest in the catalogue of 
American authors. Left an orphan at an early age, he was 
adopted by John Allan, a very wealthy gentleman of Richmond. 
Here he was surrounded by luxury and the aristocracy of the 
South. It seems he was allowed in many respects to do as he 
pleased and oftentimes when he should have been disciplined 
he was granted indulgence instead. His later life was a con- 
tinuation of hardships, disappointments, and sorrow, and his 
literary works depict his life vividly, for they are a repeti- 
tion of gloom, despondency, and horror. 

Among his most interesting works are Tamerlane, The Rain n, 
Annabel Lee, The Bells, The Goldbug, A Descent into the Mael- 
strom, Tlu Pit and the Pendulum, Manuscript Found in a Botth , 
and The Fall of the House of Usher. 

429. Henry W. Longfellow. — The early 
life of Henry W. Longfellow was much dif- 
ferent than that of Edgar Allan Poe. 
Reared in a home which contained books 
and music and having father and mother 
who were people of intellectual turn, Long- 
fellow spent his evenings around the table 
studying his lessons or playing games in the 
large kitchen before a broad open fireplace. 
At the early age of three years he was sent 
to school and at the age of ten years he 
read Latin and did work in other advanced 
subjects. At the age of thirteen he pub- 
lished his first poem "The Battle of Lovell's Pond," in the Port- 
land Gazette. At fourteen he entered Bowdoin College where 
he graduated fourth in a class of thirty-eight. His advancement 
was remarkable, for in early manhood he was recognized as one 
of the foremost of American poets. 

Among his many excellent works may be found Hyperion, 
Voices of the Night, Poems on Slavery, Evangeline, Song of Hia- 
tvalha, Courtship of Miles Standisli, Talcs of a Wayside Inn, 
and The New England Tragedies. 

430. John Greenleaf Whittier. — Near the little old village of 
Haverhill, Massachusetts. John Greenleaf Whittier, the little 
Quaker boy, spent his childhood days. As he leaned upon bis 
hoe in the corn field bis mind was absorbed in bis fancies and 
dreams of nature, and at night he would scribble verses anl 




henry w. 

LONGFELLOW 



252 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



rhymes on his slate. Being of a very independent and religious 
disposition, he oftentimes become involved in questions of scrip- 
ture and morality. At the age of nineteen 
lie sent a poem to Win. Lloyd Garrison, edi- 
tor of The Free Press. Garrison was so 
pleased with the poem that he visited the 
Whittier home and urged that the son be 
given a course of study preparatory to a 
literary future. When he was twenty years 
old, he entered Haverhill Academy, and his 
work in literary lines soon won admiration 
of many noted persons. At an early age he 
numbered among his friends such talented 
personages as Emerson, Lowell, Elizabeth 
Stuart Phelps, Harriet Beecher Stow.e, 
Hawthorne and many others. Much of his literary work is along 
the line of slavery and he gave the best years of his life in earn- 
est work for the freedom of the slaves of the south. 

Some of his best works are Moll Pitcher, Poems of Abolition, 
Voices of Freedom, Political Works, Little Eva, Hemic Ballads, 




JOHN ORERNLEAF 
WHITTIER 




Photograph by Ton's 
GRAVE OP EMERSON 
In Sleepy Hollow cemetery, Concord, Massachusetts 



THIRTY YEARS PEACE 



25)5 






w 



] li Hj§ 



Poems In War Time and Other Poems, Snow-Bound, Maud 
Mulli r, Pot ins of Nature, and At Sundown, 

431. Ralph Waldo Emerson. — Ralph Waldo Emerson de- 
scended from a class of people who had for generations repre- 
sented the highest in both intellectual and moral culture. Al- 
though his father died when he was eight years old, his mother 
and aunt (two very remarkable women) directed his training 
and education in such a manner that he developed into a man 
of extraordinary ability. His work as a minister, lecturer, and 
writer has had a good and lasting effect on society in general. 

Representative Men, English Traits, Conduct of Life, May- 
Day and Other Pieces, Society and Solitude, and Natural History 
of the Intellect are often referred to as among his most interest- 
ing works. 

432. Oliver Wendell Holmes. — Surrounded by his father's 
library, which contained about two thou- 
and volumes, and directed in his reading 
and studies by cultured and intellectual 
parents, Oliver Wendell Holmes early ex- 
hibited marked inclination toward a lit- 
erary life. 

Although he pursued the study of law 
and later the study of medicine with 
credit, yet these intellectual attributes 
were of no practical value to him, from 
a business standpoint. 

433. Holmes had passed middle age 
before he settled down exclusively to 
purely literary work, and the culture and refinement of his ma- 
ture age is mainly noticeable in all his literary productions. 

A few of his many excellent works which may be mentioned 
are : Pages from an Old Volume of Life, The Autocrat of the 
Breakfast Table, The Professor at the Breakfast Table, Elsie 
Tenner. The Guardian Angel, The Poet at the Breakfast Table, 
Life of Emerson, in the American Men of Letters series, and 
Over the Tea-Cups. 

434. James Russell Lowell. — Another strong anti-slavery 
writer was James Russell Lowell, also a native of Massachusetts. 

Graduated from the Harvard College and from the Harvard 
Law School he was well prepared for his chosen work. 

Some of his works which are familiar to all, are : Class Poem. 
The Vision of Sir Launfal, A Eable for Critics, The Biglow Pa- 




OLIVER W. HOLMES 



254 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




JAMES R. LOWELL 



pers, Fireside Travels, Commemoration Ode, Under tire Willows, 
and Political Essays. 

435. George Bancroft. — It was also 
about this time that some of our best his- 
torians began to give to the world the re- 
sult of their labors along the line of his- 
tory. In 1834 George Bancroft publish- 
ed the first volume of his famous History 
of the United States. In 1885 he pub- 
lished a revised edition of his work, in 
six volumes. 

436. Wm. H. Prescott. — Another his- 
torian who is probably, on account of his 
pleasing and romantic style, more favor- 
ably known, is Wm. H. Prescott. 

All students, whether American or for- 
eign, are familiar with his Ferdinand 
and Isabella, The Conquest of Mexico, 
and The Conquest of Peru. 

437. John Lothrop Motley.— Added to 
the pleasing and romantic style of Pres- 
cott must be added the dramatic style 
peculiar to John Lothrop Motley. This in- 
dividual and peculiar power is quite pro- 
nounced in The Pise of the Dutch Republic. 

438. National Nominating Conven- 
tions. — At the close of Jackson's hrst term 
there was instituted a new plan for the 
selection of candidates for president. By this new plan each 
party published : 

1st. A platform explaining and defining the positions ad- 
hered to by the party. 

2nd. The candidates for president and vice president were 
chosen by national conventions held for that purpose. 

This plan has been in vogue ever since. 

439. Presidential Election, 1836. — Jackson, in accordance 
with the well established custom — that no president should 
serve more than two terms— refused to accept the nomination 
in 1836. The democrats, therefore, chose as their candidates 
Martin Van Buren, a man of Jackson's principles and beliefs, 
for president, and R. M. Johnson for vice president. 

There were several oilier candidates, but Van Buren and 
Johnson were elected by a large majority. 




WILLIAM 



PRESCOTT 



DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1837-1841 




MARTIN 
VAN BUREN 



440. Van Buren and the Independent Treasury System.— 
President Van Buren had scarcely entered upon 
the duties of his office when the ; ' Panic of 1847 ' ' 

[Section 420] swept over the country. Many 
wished to re-establish the United States Bank, 
but Van Buren was opposed to this. How- 
ever, he did not like Jackson's scheme of de- 
positing the surplus in the state banks, and 
therefore he proposed to establish a main 
treasury at "Washington with sub-treasuries in 
other important cities where revenue collec- 
tors might pay the money collected by them. 
Clay, Webster, and others opposed this bill, so 

it failed to become a law at this time. 

In 1840, however, a similar bill became a law and has been 

in effect ever since. 122 

441. Anti-Slavery Movement. — President Van Buren had 
other matters of importance with which to contend, besides 
those of a financial character. While Jackson was still presi- 
dent — 1831 — -Win. Lloyd Garrison had begun the publication 
of an abolitionist paper, The Liberator. In 1832 an anti-slavery 
society was founded, which advocated immediate and absolute 
abolition of slavery. Other societies of like nature were found- 
ed, by the efforts of such men as James G. Birney, Gerrit 
Smith, Theodore Parker, James Russell Lowell, and Wendell 
Phillips. 

The south now became aroused. They insisted that the cir- 
culation of publications of anti-slavery nature through the 
mails should be prohibited, and also demanded that congress 
pass a rule to receive no petitions regarding slavery [Section 
442]. 

This question became serious. In 1835 a meeting of the 
Women's Anti-slavery Society at Boston was broken up by a 
mob. Garrison, who was present, was dragged through the 

'■22 Garrison, i, eh. vii-xiv; Clay, ii, 70; Hart's Contemp's, iii, 595. 



256 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

streets by the mob, with a rope around his body. He was with 
difficulty rescued and placed in jail for his own protection. In 
1837 Elijah P. Lovejoy, who was publishing an anti-slavery 
paper at Alton, Illinois, was fatally shot. The poet, John G. 
Whittier, editor of the Pennsylvania Freeman, had his office 
press, and books and all destroyed and barely escaped being him- 
self mobbed. 

442. The Gag Rule 1836.— In 1836 congress adopted the rule 
known as ' ' The Gag Rule, ' ' but ' ' The Old Man Eloquent, ' ' ex- 
President John Quincy Adams, with all the energy and elo- 
quence in his power, declared this rule an infringement of the 
"right of petition," as guaranteed by the Constitution. He 
made it his business to present to congress, regardless of the 
rule, every petition of every nature offered him. No exception 
was made. Once to the delight of his enemies, he brought to 
the notice of congress a petition presented to him, praying for 
his own expulsion from congress on the ground that he was a 
nuisance ; but John Quincy Adams had fought many a battle 
and knowing he was right kept up the fight until December, 
1844, when the "Gag Rule" was rescinded. 

443. Presidential Election of 1840. 123 — On account of the fi- 
nancial distress, the slavery disturbances, and his views on the 
independent treasury, Van Buren became very unpopular and 
although he was renominated by his party, he was defeated by 
the Whig candidate, William Henry Harrison of Tippecanoe 
fame. [Section 366]. 



123 At this point in the study of United States history, a careful review 
should be made of the following political parties : Federalist, Anti-Feder- 
alist, Democratic-Republican (1793-1825), National Republican, Democratic, 
Anti-Masonic, and Whig. See some good political history for the study of 
these parties. 



WHIG ADMINISTRATION, 1841-1851 




WILLIAM HENRY 
HARRISON 



444. Harrison and Tyler Administrations 
1841-1845.— On April 4, 1841, just one month 
after his inauguration, President Harri- 
son 12i died and Vice President John Tyler 
of Virginia became president. 

445. Tyler and the United States Bank. 
— On account of financial troubles [Section 
420] President Harrison called an extra ses- 
sion of congress to consider the question of 
finance. The AVhigs having elected their 
president and being in a majority in con- 
gress wished to reestablish the United 
States Bank. A bill to this effect framed 

by Henry Clay was passed, but failed to be- 
come a law as it was vetoed by President Ty- 
ler. A second bill to re-establish the bank 
was passed by congress, but the president ve- 
toed this bill also. 

446. The President Deserted by the 
Whig Party. — The Whig party now became 
furious. The president was accused of be- 
ing a deserter. All the members of the cab-' 
inet except Daniel Webster resigned, and 
as far as possible, the president was ignored 
by the Whig party. 

447. Webster- Ashburton Treaty. — [Plate No. 9.] Webster 
probably would have retired from the cabinet at this time, had it 
not been that he was engaged in a very important matter for 
the United States. 

The treaty of 1789 was quite indefinite regarding the bound- 
ary line between Maine and New Brunswick which at times 
had presented a very serious issue between the two govern- 
ments. 

In 1842, however, the two nations agreed to refer the questions 
to Daniel Webster and Lord Ashburton, w r ho fixed the bound- 




JOHN TYLER 



i 2 *Schurz's Clay, ii, 198; Von Hoist's United States, ii. 



258 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ary line at its present limits. 125 The treaty also reestablished the 
northern boundary of the United States from the upper ex- 
tremity of Lake Huron, along the present boundary line to the 
crest of the Rocky Mountains. Nothing as yet was done re- 
garding the Oregon country. 

Webster now retired from the president's cabinet. 

448. Tariff of 1842. — According to the compromise tariff of 
1833 [Section 424] the rate was to be gradually lowered until 
the year 1842 when it should reach the level of twenty per cent. 
When congress convened, although contrary to the stipulations 
of the tariff of 1833, it proceeded to pass a high rate tariff bill. 
The bill, as usual with all bills, was promptly vetoed by Presi- 
dent Tyler. Another bill was passed and received the same fate. 
Finally, through the efforts of Millard Fillmore, the president 
allowed a third bill to become a law. 

This bill was virtually the same as that of 1832, as the aver- 
age duties were about thirty-five per cent, and therefore was 
in no way in accordance with the stipulations of the compro- 
mise tariff of 1833. 

However, we must not judge the president too harshly, as he 
had inherited from the Van Buren administration a deficit of 
over eleven million dollars. 

449. Dorr's Rebellion, 1842.— Since 1663 [Section 118] 
Rhode Island had acted under the charter granted to Roger 
Williams by King Charles II. According to this charter only 
a freeman (that is one holding real estate of a certain value) 
or his eldest son could vote. 

In 1842 a new constitution was adopted and in the election 
that followed two parties — the "Law and Order" party and 
the "Suffrage" party — contested for the control of the state 
under the new constitution. 

The "Law and Order" party refused to count any votes ex- 
cept the votes of "freemen" and proceeded to organize the 
government under the new constitution. The "Suffrage" 
party, which claimd that Thomas W. Dorr had been elected 
governor, rose in rebellion and were dispersed only after the 
United States troops had been called. Dorr was tried and 
convicted of treason, but later was pardoned. 

450. Anti-rent Difficulties, 1844. — In New York another dis- 
turbance which caused both riots and bloodshed was the trouble 



125 Lodge's Webster, 252; Schouler, 396; Benton, ii, ch. ci and cvi. 



THIRTY YEARS PEACE 259 

which arose over the old Dutch patroonates of 1629. [Section 
121.] 

The proprietor of the Van Rensselaer estate, being of a gen- 
erous disposition, had not for several years collected the rents. 

At his death in 1839, the heirs undertook to collect the rents, 
but the tenants absolutely refused to pay them. The tenants 
of other estates joined in the contest, and sheriffs and rent col- 
lectors were murdered. Military forces had to be called to 
suppress the uprising. After several years of agitation, the 
trouble was settled by the landlords accepting a lump sum, the 
annual rents being discontinued. 

451. The Mormons. — A very remarkable religious sect of 
people known as Mormons at this time created much trouble 
in the country. The Mormon church had been founded by 
Joseph Smith of Palmyra, New York, in 1829. The year follow- 
ing he published what is known as the Book of Mormon, which 
he claimed to have received in a very miraculous manner. With 
a body of followers he formed a settlement at Kirtland, Ohio. 
Later (1837) they settled at Independence, Missouri, but in 
1838 they were driven out of Missouri and made a new settle- 
ment at Nauvoo (Illinois), where they erected a beautiful tem- 
ple; and by the year 1844 they had built a city of over ten 
thousand people. 

On account of their religious belief which sanctioned the 
practice of polygamy, they were very undesirable citizens. 
They were also held responsible for many crimes which were 
committed at this time. Finally their leader, Joseph Smith, 
was arrested and taken to Carthage (Missouri), where he was 
murdered by a mob while awaiting trial. 

452. The Mormons Move to Utah. — Under their new leader, 
Brigham Young, these people now decided to move far from 
civilization where they would not be molested in the exercise 
of their religious teachings. They began a settlement in Iowa, 
near the present city of Council Bluffs, but later transplanted 
their entire sect far from civilization, in the desert region near 
the G reat Salt Lake in Utah. 

453. The Republic of Texas. — Mexico, along with other 
Spanish colonies, had by a revolution gained her freedom from 
Spain. 

Previous to the treaty of 1819 with Spain [Section 396 and 
Plate 9] much of the country then known as Texas had been 
claimed by the United States, but in order to secure Florida all 



260 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

claim to this country was relinquished by this nation. How- 
ever, on account of the fertile soil and delightful climate this 
country had been rapidly settled by people from the southern 
and western states. 

These people were naturally anti-Mexican in sentiment and 
in 1836, after a short but bloody war, they declared their inde- 
pendence from Mexico, adopted a constitution, and set up a gov- 
ernment, with Sam Houston (formerly of Tennessee) as president. 

It is well to note that according to the Texas constitution, 
slavery was a fundamental part of the government. 




"•--^'^^,, . ' ' 






THE MORMONS ON THEIR WAY TO UTAH 



•454. Texas Admitted, 1845. 126 — Soon after Texas declared 
her independence, she asked to be admitted into the United 
States as a state. 

The south was very anxious to have the state admitted as it 
would extend the slave territory. The north was not in favor 
of admitting the state for two reasons: 

1. The boundary line between Mexico and Texas was still 
in dispute, as Mexico had not as yet acknowledged the inde- 
pendence of Texas. Consequently if she should be admitted 
into the Union it would lead to a war between the United 
States and Mexico. 



i2C Caldwell's American Territorial Development, 129; Johnson's Amer- 
ican Politics. 



THIRTY YEARS PEACE 



261 




2. Slavery being a fundamental part of the constitution 
would naturally tend to perpetuate the institution of slavery. 

However, after a long and passionate contest, Texas in 1854 
was admitted as a slave state. 

455. Florida Admitted, 1845. — A few months previous to the 
admission of Texas, Florida had been admitted to the Union as 
a slave state. By the admission of these two states, the bal- 
ance of power in the United States senate was with the south. 

456. The Telegraph and Other Scientific Improvements. — 
While questions of national importance 
were being discussed by statesmen, and 
questions of sovereignty were being de- 
termined by the military forces, men of 
science were busily engaged in their lab- 
oratories making discoveries and im- 
provements along many different lines. 

In 1834 Cyrus H. McCormick invented 
the McCormick mowing machine. 

In 1835 Samuel F. B. Morse invented 
the magnetic telegraph. 

In 1835 Samuel Colt patented revolv- 
ing firearms. 

In 1839 Dr. Draper discovered the pro- 
cess of taking daguerreotype portraits. 
In 1841 Drs. Morton and Jackson discovered the use of ether 
as an anaesthetic. 

In 1844 Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, 
used nitrous oxide gas (laughing gas) for painless extraction 
of teeth. 

In the same year Charles Goodyear patented the process of 
vulcanizing India rubber so that it might be made into shoes, 
garments and other articles. 

In 1846 Elias Howe invented, perfected and patented the 
sewing machine. 

Soon these inventions and discoveries were put to practical 
use and have had much to do in making it possible for us to 
make rapid and wonderful strides in civilization. 

457. Presidential Election of 1844. — Prior to the admission 
of Texas, the presidential election had been held, and the ques- 
tion of the admission of Texas to the Union became the main 
issue in the campaign. 

The democrats placed in nomination James K. Polk of Ten- 



SAMUEL F. B. MORSE 
(From an engraving in the 
Treasury Department, 
Washington, D. C.) 



262 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

nessee who was in favor of annexation. This party was also 
in favor of establishing the northern boundary of the Oregon 
country at 54° 40' [Plate No. 9]. Previous to the democratic 
convention the Whigs had met in national convention and nom- 
inated as their candidate, Henry Clay. The "Liberty" or 
"Anti-Slavery" party nominated James G. Birney of New York. 

James K. Polk was elected president and George M. Dallas 
of Pennsylvania, vice president. 

During this election, the campaign cry of Polk's followers 
was, "Fifty- four Forty or Fight." Our claim to the territory 
(Oregon country) south of the parallel 54° 40' was through 
Captain Gray's discovery of the Columbia River [Section 345], 
Lewis and Clark's expedition (Section 345), our settlements, 
and the Spanish treaty of 1819. 

However, by the treaty of 1846 [Section 469], the line of 1818 
[Plate No. 9] was extended through to the Pacific Ocean. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 127 
DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1845-1849 




JAMES 



458. Dispute over the Boundary between Texas and Mexico 
and the Army of Occupation. — [Plate No. 
6.] As had been anticipated, as soon as 
Texas was admitted into the Union [Sec- 
tion 454] trouble arose over the boundary 
line between this state and Mexico. Texas 
claimed the Rio Grande River as her 
southern boundary while Mexico declared 
it to be the Neueees River. The country 
between these two rivers was therefore 
in dispute, and President Polk at once 
sent an army under General Taylor to 
hold the territory for the United States. 

Mexico looked upon this as a declara- 
tion of war, and in April, 1846, her forces killed or captured 
every member of an American party who were out on a scout- 
ing expedition. 

459. War Declared, May 13, 1846. 128 — As soon as this news 
reached Washington, the president sent a message to congress 
in which he declared that war already existed with Mexico in- 
asmuch as "Mexico has invaded our territory and shed Amer- 
ican blood on American soil." Congress acted promptly and 
on May 13 declared that "by the act of Mexico a state of war 
exists." In order to prosecute the war, an appropriation of 
ten million dollars was made and a call was issued for fifty 

127 Ehodes's History of The United States, from the Compromise of 1860; 
The Century Company 's series, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. These 
same works give a very satisfactory discussion of the political and foreign 
affairs during the same period. See also Wilson's Division and Reunion, 
pp. 213-223, and Grant's Personal Memoirs, vol. i, ch. xvii-xxi. 

Among juvenile books, Champlin's War for the Union, C. C. Coffin's 
Drumbeat of the Nation, The Boys of '61, and Winning His Way, are 
among the best. 

128 In the War of 1812, the south furnished 96,800 soldiers, and the 
north 58,500. In the Mexican War, the south furnished 43,600 and the 
north, 23,000. — Pollard's Southern History. 



264 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

thousand volunteers. In answer to this call over three hundred 
thousand men responded. 

460. Taylor's Campaign. — [Plate No. 6.] As soon as Gen- 
eral Taylor learned that the Mexicans had shed American blood, 
he started in search of the intruders. On May 8 at Palo Alto 
an engagement was fought in which the Americans were vic- 
torious. The next day the Mexicans were so badly defeated 
at Resaca de la Palina that they were forced to cross the Rio 
Grande. 

The student will notice that both of these battles were fought 
before the declaration of war by the United States, but General 
Taylor believed that this action was necessary and consequently 
did not wait. 

General Taylor followed the Mexicans to Monterey and after 
a long siege, on September 24 captured the city. 

461. The President Sends General Scott to the Front. — 
[Plate No. 6.] On account of this brilliant campaign, General 
Taylor became very popular, and for political reasons this was 
very displeasing to the administration. Consequently General 
Winfield Scott, who was over all the American forces, was 
ordered to Vera Cruz, from which place he was to proceed 
directly to the heart of Mexico. 

462. Battle of Buena Vista, February 22-23, 1847.— [Plate 
No. 6.] As soon as Scott received his instructions, he ordered 
General Taylor to send to him ten thousand men. This of 
course very much weakened General Taylor's army, and Gen- 
eral Santa Anna, president of the Mexican Republic, taking 
advantage of this situation, attacked General Taylor, with an 
army of over twenty thousand ; but the Americans, although 
greatly out-numbered, held the field, and at midnight the Mex- 
ican army retreated. 

463. General Scott's Campaign. — [Plate No. 6.] After the 
battle of Buena Vista, Santa Anna hurried with his arnry to 
oppose General Scott at Vera Cruz. However, this place was 
soon captured by the combined efforts of the army and navy of 
the United States. The Mexicans now (April 18, 1847 s ) entrench- 
ed themselves at Cerro Gordo, where they were again defeated. 
By the tenth of August General Scott's army had reached the 
highlands surrounding the city of Mexico from which position 
the city was in plain view. 

The city of Mexico was originally surrounded by water and 
although this water has been drained off. still to this day, the city 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 



265 




Photograph by Voris 
Monument erected by the United 
States in memory of soldiers who 
fell in the Mexican War. 129 



is surrounded by marshy ground and is reached by roads, known 

as causeways. Where these cause- 
ways entered the hills they were for- 
tified in as strong a way as possible 
by the Mexicans. On August 20th, 
with an army of only eleven thous- 
and, General Scott attacked and cap- 
tured Contreras. Soon Cherubnsco 
and Moline del Rev were occupied. 
Then in one last grand effort to pro- 
tect their capitol, the Mexicans gath- 
ered their forces, at the rock of 
Chapultepec; but this was taken by 
storm, and on September 14th Gen- 
eral Scott and his army took posses- 
sion of the city of Mexico. 

464. Happenings in Other Parts 
of Mexico.— [Plate No. 6.] While 
these events were taking place, other issues of great im- 
portance were being enacted in other territories belonging 
to Mexico. In the early part of June, 1846, General Stephen 
W. Kearny with an army of only eighteen hundred left Fort 
Leavenworth (in Kansas) and following the old Santa Pe trail, 
on August 18th he entered and captured the city of Santa Fe 
without a single battle. He at once took charge of govern- 
mental affairs and declared New Mexico a part of the United 
States. General Kearny now started toward California, ex- 
pecting to conquer that country but in this venture he was too 
late, for California had already been subdued (July, 1846) by 
the combined efforts of a land and naval force under John C. 
Fremont, the "Pathfinder," and Commodore Sloat. Thus with- 
out even an important engagement all of the territory to the 
south of the Oregon country came under the control of the 
United States. 

465. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848.— 
[Plate No. 6.] Soon after General Scott captured the city of 
Mexico, peace commissioners were sent by the United States 
who on February 2, 1848, at Guadalupe Hidalgo concluded a 
treaty with the Mexican government by which the Rio Grande 

129 This monument is in the cemetery, lying between the city of Mexico 
and the castle of Chapultepec. Beneath the monument are the remains of 
nearly one thousand of the soldiers of the United States, who were killed 
on the near-by fields, during the Mexican War. 



266 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

River was declared to be the southwestern boundary of Texas. 
The treaty also provided that the United States should pay to 
Mexico $15,000,000 in gold and assume $3,500,000 of debts 
which Mexico owed to citizens of the United States. In ex- 
change for this Mexico ceded to the United States all of Upper 
California and New Mexico, in all over five hundred thousand 
square miles. 

466. Congress and the Wilmot Proviso. — Soon after the be- 
ginning of the war, President Polk requested congress to ap- 
propriate two million dollars with which to settle the dispute 
with Mexico. When the bill came before congress, David Wil- 
mot, a democratic member of the house from Pennsylvania, 
moved to amend the original bill by adding a provision of the 
Ordinance of 1787 which provided, "as an express and funda- 
mental condition to the acquisition of any territory . . . 
neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in 
any part of the said territory." The bill failed to become a law, 
but the discussion was of such a nature that the question of the 
extension of slavery was again before the people to such an 
extent that it led to the formation of the Free Soil party. This 
party was opposed to the further extension of slavery in any 
territory which was under the control, or which should ever 
come under the control of the United States. 



i^wriCi""*!***^ 




GOLD DREDGING IN CALIFORNIA 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 



267 



467. The Walker Tariff, 1846.— During the year 1846 con- 
gress passed the Walker tariff, which was practically a "tariff 
for revenue only." The bill reduced the duties on imports to 
such an extent that they reached the conditions provided by 
the compromise tariff of 1833 [Section 424J. This bill practi- 
cally set to rest the tariff question until the opening of the Civil 
War, as the only other change that was made in the schedule 
was in 1857 when a few more changes were made in the direc- 
tion of lower duties. 

468. Discovery of Gold in California and its effect on Slav- 



ery. 



At the close of the Mexican War. the south was pleased 



over the fact that more territory had been gained in which 
they believed they might introduce slavery. This expectation, 
however, was quickly blighted by an unexpected occurrence. 




A ^M*m^ % i'i*i 









V-^: 31 ^- —,>»%- -y )* : 4zTr ->.- 



■J&SSS&&& -'. 



CROSSING THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA ON THE WAY TO THE GOLD FIELDS 

OF CALIFORNIA 

In 1848 James W. Marshall of New Jersey, a carpenter, em- 
ployed by John A. Sutter in building a mill-race in California, 
discovered some shining particles of gold. This news spread 
like wild-fire and soon people began to rush in from every coun- 
try and nation. Some came across the plains; others around 
Cape Horn, while others by ship to Panama, thence across the 

isoHenty's Captain Bayley's Heir. 



268 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Isthmus and then by ship again to San Francisco. Cities soon 
sprang up as if by magic. The population of California, within 
one year (1849) was so great that they asked for admission 
into the Union as a state. These people Avere, generally speak- 
ing, not in favor of slavery and asked to be admitted into the 
Union with a constitution forbidding slavery. 

469. Northwest Boundary Established. — [Plate No. 9.] As 
already stated [Section 457] the boundary line between Canada 
and the United States was, in 1846, by mutual agreement ex- 
tended along the forty-ninth parallel to the Pacific Ocean. In 
1848 the Oregon territory was organized with a provision in its 
laws which forever excluded slavery from within its domains. 
Thus not only California but the Oregon territory was settled 
by the people who were antagonistic to slavery. 

470. States Admitted : Iowa, 1846 ; Wisconsin, 1848. — During 
this administration two states were admitted, both being ad- 
mitted with constitutions forbidding slavery. Iowa the twenty- 
ninth state, was admitted in 1846, and Wisconsin, the thirtieth, 
in 1848. 

47.1. Presidential Election, 1848. 131 - 
The most important question of course be- 
fore the people was whether the land lately 
acquired from Mexico should be slave or 
free territory. With this fact in view, the 
Free Soil party [Section 466] nominated 
ex-President Martin Van Buren ; the Dem- 
ocrats nominated Lewis Cass of Michigan, 
a northern anti-slavery man, while the 
Whigs nominated the popular Mexican war 
hero. General Zachary Taylor, a slave 
holder of the south, who was elected. 




i3i Johnson's American Politics. 



WHIG ADMINISTRATION, 1849-1853 

472. Taylor's Policy Regarding Newly Acquired Terri- 
tory. — President Taylor entered upon the duties of his office, as 
president of the United States, with that regularity, straightfor- 
wardness, and honesty which had been so characteristic of him 
during his long military life. Although he was unversed in the 
ethics of politics and law, yet on account of his honesty of pur- 
pose he served the people who had elected him (Whigs) very ac- 
ceptably. He was very sincere in all his official duties. Although 
a slaveholder, yet since the people of California had already 
expressed their desire to come in as a free state [Section 468] he 
recommended that congress admit her with a constitution forbid- 
ding slavery. He was also in favor of admitting the territory 
which had been gained from Mexico as free territory, since 
Mexico several years previous to this time had passed a law 
abolishing slavery. 

473. The Omnibus Bill, or the Compromise of 1850. 132 — This 
condition of affairs naturally aroused the south, and for some 
time it seemed as though the Union would be rent asunder. 
But the one man (Henry Clay) who had so often been able to 
suggest a plan which was acceptable to both the north and 
south, now came forward with his great compromise of 1850. 
This bill provided that 

1. California should be admitted as a free state. 

2. That the territories of Utah (including Nevada) and New 
Mexico (including Arizona) should be organized without any 
mention of slavery. 

3. That the slave trade should be abolished in the District 
of Columbia. 

4. That the dispute between Texas and New Mexico should 
be settled by the United States paying to Texas $10,000,000, 
and that she in turn should give up her claim to the territory 
claimed by New Mexico. 

5. That new and more stringent fugitive slave laws be passed. 

474. The Death of President Taylor. — While these scenes 
were being enacted in the senate chamber, a scene of a much 

132 Hoist's United States, iii, 561, vol. iv, 14-21; Schurz's Clay, ii. 



270 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




MILLARD FILLMORE 



different character had taken place at the executive mansion. 
President Taylor was suddenly taken ill with a severe case of 
cholera, and on July 9th he died ; thus the nation was suddenly 
cast into mourning, as the president was a man universally 
loved. 

On being officially informed of the death 
of the president, Vice President Fillmore 
immediately took the oath of office and as- 
sumed the duties of chief executive of the 
United States. 

475. The Contest in the Senate. — It was 
in January, 1850, when Henry Clay intro- 
duced the omnibus bill, and in many re- 
spects the argument on this bill in the 
senate was the last act to a great oratori- 
cal contest which had been waged in the 
senate for more than forty years. In Feb- 
ruary, Clay spoke in behalf of the meas- 
ure. Day after day as the bill was being debated, the galleries 
of the senate chamber were crowded to overflowing. Clay 
although aged and lacking in the power which was so charac- 
teristic of him, argued and pleaded for conciliation. Calhoun, 
broken in health to such an extent that he could not give his 
own speech, sat in his chair feebly listening to his words read 
by a friend. He advocated better fugitive slave laws, and 
for an equal division of the territory between the slave and 
free states. Calhoun was followed by Webster, who on March 
7th delivered his famous address, "For the Union and the Con- 
stitution." Many of the people of the north were disappointed 
in Webster, for they did not believe that he would support the 
compromise. The anti-slavery party was disappointed to such 
an extent that they began to look for other leaders. William 
H. Seward of New York, who was a representative citizen of the 
north, came forward and in his eloquent way warned the south 
that in their efforts to extend slavery they were only hastening 
the time when complete emancipation of the slaves would neces- 
sarily take place. He was bitter in his argument and remarks 
toward slavery, and in his speech said that if the constitution 
did not prohibit slavery, there Avas a higher law than the 
constitution by which the action of men should be guided. The 
fiijht was long and closely contested, but by September, 1850, 
a bill which agreed substantially with that introduced by Clay, 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 271 

was passed. Thus it seemed for a time at least that the agita- 
tion over slavery had been settled. 

476. The Passing 1 of Our Three Great Legislators. — The com- 
promise of 1850 was practically the last official work transacted 
by the three men who had held the legislative stage for over 
forty years. In fact, before the bill became a law (March 31, 
1850) John C. Calhoun passed away. In the death of Calhoun 
the south had lost its great political leader, as he was the cham- 
pion of state rights. 

Next to answer the death call was the great compromiser, 
Henry Clay. Students of history will remember how he had 
labored to adjust matters so that the two opposite forces led 
by Calhoun on one side and Daniel "Webster on the other, might 
compromise their differences. Clay died July 29, 1852. 

Webster had been the champion of the constitution. How 
eloquently he argued for a stronger union, we all realize when 
reading the many different speeches which he delivered before 
congress. He performed a great work. Early in the autumn 
(October 24, 1852), at his old home in Marshfield, Massachu- 
setts, Webster passed away. 

We may truthfully say of all three of these men that they 
were extremely conscientious, and true to their own convic- 
tions. They each worked with a will and energy for those 
principles which they believed to be right, and each died with 
the conviction that he had done what he could to promote those 
principles. They were all admired and honored not only by the 
United States, but by the entire civilized world. 

477. The Fugitive Slave Law. 133 — According to the stipula- 
tions of the compromise of 1850, the fugitive slave law was put 
into force in every state of the union. If the south supposed 
that this law would in any way benefit them, they must have 
been greatly disappointed, for the people in the north not only 
refused to aid in enforcing the law, but actually did everything 
in their power to hinder its enforcement. It will be remem- 
bered that, by the fugitive slave law, slaves or negroes claimed 
as slaves, were not allowed to have a trial by jury and were not 
even allowed to testify in their own defence. 

478. Personal Liberty Bill. — In order to make the fugitive 
slave law ineffective, many of the northern states passed what 
is known as ''Personal Liberty Bills." These laws, in contra- 
diction to the fugitive slave laws, granted the slaves and ne- 

133 Hart's Contemp's, iv, 84-91. 



272 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

groes claimed as slaves, a trial by jury, and in many other ways 
protected them from the effects of the fugitive slave law. Of 
course these bills greatly aroused the south. The south claimed 
that the personal liberty bills were unconstitutional ; that they 
were diametrically opposed to the acts of congress, and that 
they were aimed at the ultimate extinction of slavery. 

479. The Underground Railroad. — Another method of de- 
feating the fugitive slave law was by means of what is known 
as the "Underground Railroad System." The underground 
railroad was simply a system or convenience by which fugitive 
slaves were aided to escape from slavery through the free states 
to Canada. The stations, of course, were simply the homes of 
abolitionists or people who were friendly to the slaves. At 
these places the slaves were secreted, fed and clothed, and at 
opportune times were forwarded to the next station. By this 
method the slaves finally reached Canada. 

It is estimated that during the thirty years preceding the 
Civil War, between thirty and forty thousand slaves escaped 
by this method to Canada. 

480. Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852). — Opposition to slavery now 
existed in nearly all quarters. In the north the press, pulpit, 
legislatures, and the people in their everyday conversation were 
doing everything in their power against the system. The peo- 
ple were now ready for a great social reform, and this was 
brought about by the pen of a skilful woman (Harriet Beecher 
Stowe), in a book entitled Uncle Tom's Cabin. This book 
created an overwhelming impression. Of course its fiction 
dealt with truth in an exaggerated form. Its circulation was 
not limited to the north, but in the south and in European coun- 
tries the book had a tremendous sale. It showed the light and 
fanciful life of the slaves, and as vividly it portrayed the sad- 
ness and suffering of these same slaves. While the people of 
the south laughed at the witticisms and mirth portrayed in the 
book, the people of the north shed tears and decided that slav- 
ery must be eliminated from the nation. 

481. The Seventh Census, 1850.— The census of 1850 showed 
that the population of the United States had made a material 
gain since 1840. This may in part be explained from the fact 
that many people had come to this country from Ireland on 
account of the groat famine which during this time had pre- 
vailed in that land. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 273 

The entire population at this time was found to be 23,191,876, 
which was over one and one-third times the population of 1840. 

482. Presidential Election, 1852. — Contrary to what had been 
expected, the presidential election was not as exciting as had 
been anticipated, during the debates on the compromise of 1850. 
However, the fact was quite apparent that the Free Soil party 
was fast gaining in strength. When the time for the election 
arrived, the Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott for presi- 
dent and General William M. Graham of North Carolina for 
vice president. The Free Soil party in their convention nomi- 
nated John P. Hale of New Hampshire as president and George 
W. Julian of Indiana as vice president. The Democrats nom- 
inated Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire for president and 
William R. King of Alabama for vice president. Franklin Pierce 
and William R. King were elected. 




DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1853-1857 

483. Franklin Pierce President, 1853-1857. — Franklin Pierce, 
the fourteenth president of the United 
States, had not distinguished himself as a 
party leader, but was a polished student, 
a skilful lawyer and a man of enviable 
reputation. He was true to his party doc- 
trine and did everything in his power to 
carry out the wishes of the party. His 
administration, on account of the slavery 
question, was disturbed throughout. 

484. The Gadsden Purchase, 1857.— 
[Plate No. 9.] One of the first things the 
franklin pierce president was called upon to do was to set- 

tle the dispute between the United States and Mexico regarding 
the ownership of the Mesilla Valley. Owing to the incorrectness 
of the maps used in the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, there was 
a misunderstanding regarding the boundary line, and both coun- 
tries laid claim to this valley. Santa Anna, who was at this 
time president of the Republic of Mexico, finally agreed to ar- 
bitrate the matter, and through our minister to Mexico, James 
Gadsdeu, the territory was ceded to the United States, and in 
addition we were given the free navigation of the Gulf of Cali- 
fornia and of the River Colorado by paying to the Mexican gov- 
ernment ten millions of dollars. 

485. Martin Koszta Affair, 1854. 134 — An affair of interna- 
tional nature occurred during this year which did much to make 
the citizens of the United States feel proud of their nation. Mar- 
tin Koszta, a Hungarian patriot who had been engaged in a 
rebellion against his country, was sentenced to death. Escaping 
to the United States he at once declared his intentions of becom- 
ing a citizen. Soon after this, business affairs called him to 
Turkey, and with the passports of a United States citizen, he 
landed at Smyrna where he was seized and taken on board an 
Austrian man of war. As soon as the American ambassador 
heard of this, he demanded his release, but this was refused. 

134 Rhodes, i, 4] 6-410. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 275 

Captain Ingraham of the United States war vessel St. Louis, then 
sailed into the harbor and immediately demanded his release at 
the cannon's mouth. Thereupon the Austrians agreed to de- 
liver him to the French consul, pending the settlement of the 
affair. This was agreed to and in the settlement Koszta was 
again turned over to the United States. 

Although we are not sure that international law was entirely 
on the side of the United States in this affair, yet the victory 
greatly strengthened our national pride and did much in giving 
us favorable recognition abroad. 

486. Commodore Perry Secures a Treaty with Japan, 1854. 
— Japan, like China, had persistently refused to open her ports 
to the commerce of Christian nations. The United States wished 
very much to enter into commercial relations with Japan and 
with this idea in view the president, in 1853, sent Commodore 
Matthew C. Perry, a brother of the hero of Lake Erie, to try if 
possible to open negotiations and secure a commercial treaty. 
The Japanese were greatly astonished at the boldness of Com- 
modore Perry when he appeared in one of their harbors with his 
fleet of ships, and at once ordered him to depart ; but he refused 
to do so until he had communicated with the proper authorities 
and made known to them the object of his visit. Finally after 
much perseverance, he was received by the emperor and a treaty 
was entered into, by which the United States was permitted to 
trade at two ports. Commodore Perry also secured the protec- 
tion of United States citizens who wished to visit in Japan. 

Soon after the conclusion of this treaty a brisk commerce 
sprung up between the two nations which has increased rapidly 
until the present time. 

Japan today considers the United States her greatest friend 
and instructor, and gives to this nation a great deal of credit 
for the rapid advancement which she has made in civilization 
during recent years. 

487. The Ostend Manifesto, 1854.— [Plate No. 2.] During 
the same year that Commodore Perry concluded a treaty with 
Japan, this country was involved in trouble with Spain, over the 
island of Cuba. 135 A certain class of people known as "filibus- 
ters" was determined to annex that island to the United States. 
These filibustering expeditions had always been discouraged by 
the United States government, but at different times this govern- 
ment had tried to buy the island from Spain. 

is* Channing and Hart's History Leaflets, no. 2. 



276 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The people of the south of course were anxious to have the 
island annexed as they believed this would furnish territory for 
at least two more slave states. President Pierce, believing that 
some arrangement for the transfer of the island might now be 
made, appointed a committee consisting of the United States 
ministers to Great Britain, France, and Spain, respectively James 
Buchanan, John Y. Mason, and Pierre Soule, to meet and confer 
and report as to the best means of acquiring the island. These 
gentlemen met at Ostend, Belgium, and finally reported to the 
United States their conclusion in a document known as the 
"Ostend Manifesto." In this document they stated that the 
possession of Cuba was a necessity for the United States and 
inasmuch as Spain refused to sell the island, they recommended 
that the United States seize it. 

This report created a great deal of discussion among European 
powers, and such vigorous protests were made that the president 
concluded that it was best to drop the idea of the annexation of 
Cuba by any method whatsoever. 

488. The Walker Expedition. — Three other fillibustering ex- 
peditions were organized by William Walker against Central 
America. In the first of these expeditions, Walker and his forces 
invaded Lower California and a portion of Mexico. He, how- 
ever, was defeated by the Mexicans, and was turned over to the 
authorities of the United States at San Francisco, where he was 
tried and acquitted. Hardly had he gained his freedom when 
he sailed to Central America, going directly to Nicaragua, where 
the natives rallied to his standard to such an extent that for a 
time he gained control of the government. Soon, however, the 
countries of Central America combined their forces and over- 
threw his authority and for a second time made him a captive. 
Regaining his liberty again, he at once set out for New Orleans 
where he organized a third expedition and descended upon Hon- 
duras. The president of Honduras, by the aid of a British gun- 
boat, captured Walker and his forces. Here he was not so for- 
tunate as he had been in his other two expeditions, for he was at 
once court-martialed and shot. 

489. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854. 136 — It was thought that the 
Missouri compromise and the compromise of 1850 had practically 
settled the slavery question, but in 1854 Stephen A. Douglas, 
a Democratic senator from Illinois, offered a bill for the organi- 
zation of two territories from the area included in the present 

136 Johnston's American Orations, ii, 183-255; Hart's Contem-p's, iv, 97. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 277 

states of Kansas and Nebraska. In this bill was a clause which 

t stated that the question of slavery should 
be left entirely to the settlers themselves 
without any interference upon the part of 
congress whatsoever. This idea, known as 
"Squatter Sovereignty," was hailed with 
delight by the south, and was as vehement- 
ly denounced in the north. The south 
now believed that if this law could be 
passed, they might be able to gain this 
territory for slavery. The north believed 
that it was absolutely a repudiation of the 
Stephen a. douglas Missouri compromise [Section 401] and 
also the compromise of 1850 [Section 473]. After a most vio- 
lent discussion the bill, in May, 1854, became a law. 

490. Civil War in Kansas. — As soon as it was known that 
this bill had become a law, the slave holders and the friends of 
freedom began a vigorous contest for the control of the new ter- 
ritory. The slave holders — especially of Missouri — did every- 
thing in their power to secure this territory for slavery. Great 
crowds of people poured into Kansas from this state and voted 
at the election and then returned home. By this method a con- 
stitution permitting slavery was adopted and a government under 
this constitution was organized. However, the anti-slavery people 
refused to acknowledge this new form of government. A meeting 
was called at Topeka and a constitution forbidding slavery was 
adopted. This constitution was submitted to popular vote and 
was adopted. 

Both sides now rushed settlers to the new territory and a civil 
war ensued. Homes were burned, cities destroyed, and men. 
women, and children were cruelly murdered. Under the pro- 
tection of such men as John Brown and his sons, the pro-slavery 
men were practically driven from parts of the territory. This 
unsettled condition of affairs, however, continued to a certain 
extent until the breaking out of the great Civil War, in 1860. 

491. Assault on Sumner by Brooks. 137 — After hearing of the 
action of the Topeka convention, President Pierce sent to con- 
gress a message in which the anti-slavery people of Kansas were 
severely criticised. Charles Sumner, the senator from Massa- 
chusetts, in his celebrated speech entitled, "The Crime against 
Kansas," severelv criticised Andrew P. Butler, senator from 



i3r Johnston's American Oratioris, ii, 256, 288. 




278 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

South Carolina. Two days later Preston S. Brooks, representa- 
tive in congress from South Carolina, who 
was a relative of Senator Butler, stealth- 
ily entered the senate chamber and with 
a heavy cane beat Senator Sumner over 
the head so severely that he narrowly es- 
caped death. In fact, he was absent from 
his place in the senate for over two years, 
and never fully recovered from the as- 
sault. This affair created the greatest ex- 
citement in all parts of the nation. So 
severely was Brooks criticized by the house 
charles sumner f representatives that he resigned and re- 
turned to South Carolina where he was immediately reelected to 
the position from which he had just resigned. Thus was his at- 
tack upon Senator Sumner applauded by his constituency in 
the South. 

492. The Campaign of 1856.— The presidential campaign of 
1856 turned on the extension of slavery in the territories or to 
its limitation to the states where it already existed. 

A new party known as the American party or "Know Noth- 
ing Party" had its origin as far back as 1852 as a secret organ- 
ization whose purpose was to limit the naturalization of foreign- 
ers to those who had resided twenty-one years in this country, 
and to prevent their election to public office. The term "Know 
Nothing" was applied to them as their members always declared 
that they knew nothing whatever of the organization of the party. 
In 1856 this party nominated Millard Fillmore as president and 
Andrew D. Jackson of Tennessee as vice president. Their cam- 
paign motto was "America for Americans." 

Meantime another party had also arisen, composed principally 
of the Whigs and Democrats who were opposed to the extension 
of slavery. This party was also joined by the Free Soil party, 
and was known as the Republican party. The Republicans nom- 
inated John C. Fremont of California as president and William 
L. Dayton of New Jersey as vice president. They declared for 
internal improvements and placed on congress the duty of pro- 
hibiting slavery and polygamy in the territories, and requested 
that Kansas be admitted as a free state. 

The Democratic party announced that it was willing to let 
slavery go into the territories if the inhabitants desired it, and 
therefore approved the Kansas-Nebraska bill and "Squatter Sov- 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 279 

ereignty. " They nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania 
as president and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky as vice pres- 
ident. 

Mr. Buchanan and Mr. Breckenridge, receiving the largest 
number ol 3 electoral votes, were declared elected president and 
vice president. 




DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1857-1861 

493. James Buchanan, President, 1857-61. — James Buchan- 
an, the fifteenth president of the United 
States, was born in Pennsylvania. After 
receiving a thorough education he applied 
himself to law, beginning the practice of 
the same in 1812. However, he did not stay- 
in his law office long, for soon after the 
breaking out of the War of 1812 he joined 
a party of volunteers and marched to the 
defense of Baltimore. Returning to his 
home in 1814, he was elected to the state 
legislature, and in 1820 he became a mem- 
james buchanan De r of congress. In 1831 he retired from 
congress, and the next year he was appointed minister plenipo- 
tentiary to St. Petersburg. After his return from Russsia, he 
was elected to the senate, in which position he remained until 
1845, at which time he was appointed secretary of state under 
President Polk. In 1853 he was appointed by President Pierce 
United States minister to Great Britain. It will be remembered 
it was at this time [Section 487] that he served as one of the 
members of the Ostend conference. He returned from England 
in 1856, and was immediately nominated by the Democratic 
party for president. 

Although Buchanan was probably one of the best qualified 
men who ever entered the executive office of the United States, 
yet on account of the troublesome questions of slavery and his 
inability to adjust matters, it must be admitted that his admin- 
istration was not a success. In fact he seemed to realize this, 
for he was not desirous of being a candidate for reelection, but 
seemed glad to be able to retire to his home in Wheatland, Penn- 
sylvania. Here he died June 1, 1868. 

* 494. The Dred Scott Decision. 138 — On March 6, 1857, just 
two days after Buchanan's inauguration, the supreme court of 
the United States handed down a decision which again brought 
the question of slavery before the people. Dred Scott, a slave 

138 Von Hoist's United States, ch. i of vol. vi; Hart's Contemp's, iv, 122. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 281 

owned by Dr. Emerson, was the plaintiff in the case. Originally 
Dr. Emerson had lived in Missouri, but about 1834, being en- 
gaged as a surgeon in the United States army, he took his slave, 
Dred Scott, with him to Rock Island, Illinois; later, the doctor 
was called to Fort Snelling, near the present site of St. Paul in 
Minnesota, and while at this place, Dred Scott, with the consent 
of his master, married a negro woman whom the doctor had also 
purchased. Two children were born to them; one on free soil 
and the other in St. Louis, to which place Mr. Emerson had re- 
turned. In 1838 Dred Scott, with his wife and children, were 
sold by their master to a man from New York. It was at this 
time that he sued for his freedom, claiming that his residence on 
free soil had made him a free man. 

In the lower courts the case was decided in the slave's favor, 
but the supreme court of Missouri reversed the decision. The 
case was then carried to the supreme court of the United States, 
and after a long and elaborate discussion of all the questions in 
the case, a decision was handed down as follows : 

"Upon the whole, therefore, it is the judgment of this court 
that it appears, by the record before me, that the plaintiff in 
error is not a citizen of Missouri, in the sense in which that 
word is used in the constitution ; and that the circuit court of 
the United States for that reason had no jurisdiction in the case, 
and could give no judgment in it. Its judgment for the defend- 
ant must consequently be reversed, and a mandate issued direct- 
ing the suit to be dismissed for want of jurisdiction. ' ' 

This decision, it will be observed, practically opened all the 
territories of the United States to slavery and while gratifying 
to the southerners, it created a great discussion in the north, 
where it was believed that the decision was unjust. 

495. Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858. 139 — As we have already 
noticed Stephen A. Douglas had, since his introduction of the 
' ' Kansas-Nebraska Bill, ' ' been one of the foremost figures in the 
senate chamber. His second term was now drawing to a close, 
and the Republicans of Illinois chose Lincoln to oppose Douglas 
who was of course the Democratic candidate. Lincoln at once 
challenged him to a series of seven joint debates, on the issues 
of slavery. This series of debates was of more than passing 
interest since the discussion covered all the questions which were 
finally settled by the Civil War. 

139 Caldwell's Great American Legislators; Von Hoist's United States, 
vi, 267; Burgess's Civil War, i, 46-50; Old South Leaflets, no. 85. 



282 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




Although Douglas was elected to the senatorship, Lincoln was 
brought prominently before the people and soon became the lead- 
er of the Republican party. 

496. John Brown's Raid, 1859. 140 — John Brown was a man 

who had all the finer and better 
feelings of his heart wrung from 
him by the outrages of the Kansas 
border warfare and only revenge 
for his wrongs and sufferings was 
left. Like many others, he emigrat- 
ed to Kansas for the purpose of 
making that territory his home ; but 
differing in regard to the best pol- 
icy to adopt for the rapid develop- 
ment and growth of the territory, 
with another class of immigrants, 
an attempt was made by those last 
mentioned to over-ride and to drive 

JOHN BROWN . 

As he appeared in 1855 when he first f rom the territory all who differed 
passed through iowa f rom t i iem i n politics. In the at- 

tempt to carry out this desperate scheme, among others a son 
of Brown, who had been elected to the legislature, was arrested 
at Osawatomie, his hands and feet chained together with a heavy 
log chain, and thus hobbled he was compelled to travel on foot to 
Lecompton. The sun was burning hot and the heavy chain wore 
its way into his flesh. Under this barbarous treatment he was 
seized with brain fever and soon afterward died. Some time 
after this an attack was made on Osawatomie by the Missourians 
and another son of Brown was taken prisoner and afterward 
shot in cold blood. Brown now became a monomaniac on the 
subject of slavery. He fought the invaders of Kansas with 
intrepidity and bloodthirstiness. He made invasions into the 
border counties of Missouri, and aided slaves in escaping from 
their masters. 

After these repeated wrongs, Brown conceived he was com- 
missioned by Heaven to exterminate the blot of slavery from 
our country. To effect this imaginary commission of his dis- 
ordered brain, he had been working with a few deluded follow- 
ers, white and black, with a self-sacrificing zeal. 

In 1856, James Townsend, a member of the Society of Friends, 



140 Von Hoist's United States History, v, 172-286; Hart's Contemp's, 
iv, 114; Rhodes, ii, 150-215. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 283 

kept a public house, "The Travelers' Rest," in the little village 
of West Branch, in Cedar County, Iowa. In October, John 
Brown, on his way from Kansas, reached the "Travelers' Rest" 
and stopped over night. Learning that the landlord was a Quak- 
er, Brown made known to him that he was " Osawatomie Brown" 
of Kansas, and at once received a most cordial welcome. He 
was told of the strong anti-slavery views of the Quaker settle- 
ment at Springdale, four miles to the east, which place later also 
gave him a cordial reception. 

Brown believed that a body of fearless men could make a safe 
lodgment in the mountains of Maryland and Virginia and liber- 
ate the slaves. His plan was to arm the escaped slaves with 
pikes, organize and drill them under experienced officers selected 
from young men who had seen service in the Kansas war. 

With this plan in view, he called to his standard a number of 
men who had fought with him in the Kansas struggle. Among 
these men were John C. Cook, two Coppock boys, and others 
from the vicinity of West Branch and Springdale in Iowa. They 
proceeded to Springdale, where they were quartered on the farm 
of William Maxson, three miles from the village. The Spring- 
dale settlement was remote from railroads or any public thor- 
oughfare and was a peaceful community of thrifty, prosperous 
farmers, most of whom were abolitionists. While the Quakers 
were from principle opposed to war, so warm were their sym- 
pathies for the oppressed that they found a way to hold in high 
esteem and admiration these fearless young men who had risked 
their lives in striking sturdy blows for freedom in Kansas. The 
fame of John Brown, as one of the most daring leaders of the 
free state men, had reached every part of the country and the 
peaceful people of the Quaker settlement saw in him a leader so 
devoted to emancipation that his life would be freely given to 
secure freedom of the slaves. 

During the winter he revealed to some of his friends his plans 
for the future and the purpose for which he was drilling his 
followers. Not one of these looked with favor upon his desper- 
ate enterprise and all tried to dissuade him from such a hazard- 
ous and hopeless undertaking. 

In the east, Gerrit Smith, F. B. Sanborn, Wendell Phillips, and 
Theodore Parker remonstrated with him in vain. To all he re- 
plied that it was his mission to aid in the overthrow of slavery 
and every one of his followers was willing to risk his life in the 



284 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

attempt. ' ' I tell you, ' ' he said, ' ' it will be the beginning of the 
end of slavery." 

With this end in view, Brown and his followers went to Mary- 
land, as stated above, attacked and captured Harper's Ferry 
(West Virginia), seized the United States Arsenal and endeav- 
ored to incite the slaves to insurrection. However, in this Brown 
was disappointed and he and several of his men were soon after- 
ward captured, tried, and executed for treason. This affair set 
the whole country aflame over the question of slavery. In the 
south it was believed that the northerners were planning a gen- 
eral insurrection, and they believed that their only security lay 
in secession and absolute independence from the northern states. 




OLD COURT HOUSE 
At Charlestown, Virginia, in which John Brown was tried and sentenced 



497. The Campaign of I860. 1 " — The campaign opened with 
discord in the Democratic party. Stephen A. Douglas announc- 
ed himself as candidate for the presidency on the Democratic 
ticket; but, as had been anticipated, on account of the position 
which he had taken regarding the slavery question during the 
Lincoln-Douglas debates, the southern Democrats proceeded to 

i4i Morse's Lincoln, i, ch. iv; Rhodes, ii, 454; Von Hoist's United States, 
vii, ch. iv-vi; Hart's Contemp's, iv, 155-159; Seward, iv, 679; Tarbell, i, ch. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 285 

ignore him completely. In fact the Democratic party was now 
divided on the great question of slavery, and proceeded to 
nominate two people for president. The northern Democrats 
supported Stephen A. Douglas for president and Herschel V. 
Johnson of Georgia for vice president. In their platform they 
declared that the question of slavery should be settled by the 
supreme court and by the principle of squatter sovereignty. 
The southern Democrats nominated John C. Breckenridge of 
Kentucky for president and Joseph Lane of Oregon for vice presi- 
dent. In their platform they pledged their party in support of 
the Drecl Scott decision and the acquisition of Cuba. 

The Constitutional Union party, which was composed of the 
old American party and remnants of the old Whigs and some 
Democrats, nominated John Bell of Tennessee for president and 
Edward Everett of Massachusetts for vice president. In their 
platform they declared for ' ' The constitution of the country, the 
union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws. ' ' 

The Republican party in their platform declared in favor of 
internal improvements and protective tariff and denied the con- 
stitutional authority of congress, of a territorial legislature, or of 
any individual to have the power to make slavery in the terri- 
tories legal. This party nominated Abraham Lincoln for presi- 
dent and Hannibal Hamlin for vice president. These two gen- 
tlemen having the highest number of electoral votes were de- 
clared elected. 

498. Buchanan's Policy. 142 — -When congress met on Decem- 
ber 3, 1860, the entire nation awaited anxiously the message of 
the president. The north well realized that his sympathies were 
with the south, but they did not understand the plans and pur- 
poses of the president and the southern leaders. Three of his 
cabinet officers. John B. Floyd of Virginia, secretary of war; 
Howard Cobb of Georgia, secretary of treasury, and Jacob 
Thompson of Mississippi, secretary of interior, had for months 
been using their powers to prepare the south for the struggle 
which they saw was close at hand. The president in his message 
laid the blame of existing conditions on the north, and declared 
that while he did not believe a state had the right to withdraw 
from the union, yet the constitution conferred no rights on the 
federal government which gave it the privilege of preventing 
such withdrawal; in other words, he made the state the sover- 
eign power instead of the general government. 

5 42 Rhodes, iii, 114, 132, 196; Burgess's Civil War, i, 74. 



286 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

499. Secession. 343 — As the student of history has already ob- 
served, the idea of secession was not at all new. It will be re- 
membered, that in the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 
1798, [Section 338], this idea was promulgated; also in the War 
of 1812, the New England states contemplated withdrawing from 
the Union [Section 385] ; South Carolina in 1832 in her nullifi- 
cation ordinance [Section 422] brought prominently forward the 
same doctrine. In the north it was believed that such talk was 
simply a "political bluff," so when the southern states declared 
they would secede if Lincoln were elected they were not taken 
seriously. Even James Russell Lowell wrote, "The old Munbo- 
Jumbo is occasionally paraded at the north, but however many 
old women may be frightened, the pulse of the stock market re- 
mains provokingly calm." However, on December 20, 1860, the 
people of South Carolina in a convention at Charleston passed 
the following ordinance : 

"We, the people of the state of South Carolina, in convention 
assembled, do declare and ordain . . . that the union now 
subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the 
name of the 'United States of America' is hereby dissolved." 

Soon Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, and 
Texas passed like ordinances. 

The senators and representatives of these states soon resigned 
their places in congress. On February 
8th, at Montgomery, Alabama, delegates 
from these states elected Jefferson Dav- 
is of Mississippi, president, and Alex- 
ander H. Stephens of Georgia, vice pres- 
ident of the Confederate States of 
America. 

500. The North and the South Com- 
pared — New States. — Before taking up 
the study of the Civil War, it is 
well for us to review the conditions of 
the two sections which engaged against 
(From a photograph in the pos- each other in this great struggle. 

session of his family) T n ig58 Maine had been admitted to 

the Union and in 1859, Oregon. The constitution of each of 
these states prohibited slavery. In 1861 Kansas was admitted, 
and its constitution not only forbade slavery, but it also prohibit- 
ed colored persons ever settling within the state. By the admis- 

143 Fart's Contemp's, iv, 164; Ehodes, iii, 207. 




SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 287 

sion of these three free states, the north had gained a majority in 
the senate and a vast amount of free territory. 

In 1860, the eighth census was taken, and it was found that 
the population was 31,413,332. Of this number, 23,000,000 were 
in the free states and of the 9,000,000 in the slave states, three 
and one-half millions were slaves. This vast difference in pop- 
ulation is readily explained when we take in account the fact 
that working people could not exist in the south where they must 
compete with slave labor. Consequently, nearly all of the for- 
eign immigrants settled in the northern states. 

Besides these differences, the south was a strictly agricultural 
section, while in the north were many factories where they could 
manufacture the supplies needed in the Union armies. Although 
the people of the south were fighting on their own territory and 
on the defensive and had many experienced generals in their 
army, yet the advantages enumerated above were of more im- 
portance when it came to actual warfare. 



HOME LIFE, SCHOOL ADVANTAGES, LITERATURE, AND 
GENERAL CONDITIONS 

501. The Extent of Territory.— [Plate No. 9.] It will be 
remembered [Section 303] at the time of "Washington's inaugur- 
ation, that the United States consisted only of the territory north 
of Florida and east of the Mississippi river, but in 1860, in addi- 
tion to this, the United States had acquired the Louisiana Pur- 
chase (1803), Florida (1819), Texas (1845), Oregon territory 
(1846), the Mexican cession (1848), and the Gadsden purchase 
(1853). Thus, in less than three-quarters of a century, the Unit- 
ed States had grown to over three times its original area. 

It will also be remembered that at the time of Washington 's in- 
auguration, our entire population of 4,000,000 was to be found in 
the thirteen original states east of the Allegheny Mountains. All 
of the country west of the Allegheny Mountains was a vast wil- 
derness, save where a few pioneers had established their trading 
posts and settlements in the Ohio Valley. In 1860 a great change 
had taken place ; cities had sprung up in the Ohio and Mississippi 
valleys and in the country beyond the Rocky Mountains. 

502. Means of Travel.— In 1779 [Section 189], the best way 
to travel was by the stage coach. It will also be remembered that 
on account of the means of communication and the modes of 
travel, very few of the congressmen had arrived on March 4th 
at the national capital, and on this account, the president was 
not inaugurated until April 30th. By 1860 a material advance- 
ment had been made along these lines. Steamships were now 
crossing the Atlantic ; almost instant communication was had by 
the telegraph with all parts of the nation ; people traveled to 
and fro on fast moving railroad trains ; even an ocean cable had 
been laid (1858) and although this proved unsuccessful, yet it 
demonstrated the fact beyond a doubt that such a thing was 
possible. 

503. Schools and Colleges. — During Washington's time [Sec- 
tion 186] schools were generally supported by donations, subscrip- 
tions, tuition, or by the different religious denominations, al- 
though in a few instances taxes were levied for their support. 
In 1860, a marked improvement was made along this line. The 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 



289 



public school system had been adopted ; high schools were estab- 
lished in all the cities and the higher studies had been introduced 
into the curriculum. Teachers' colleges, agricultural colleges 
and universities had been established in most of the states. All 
of these educational institutions were also supported by taxation ; 
congress also reserved a certain amount of land, the proceeds of 
which were placed in the school fund, making a per- 




AN EARLY PUBLIC SCHOOL HOUSE u 



manent school fund. Although in many instances the old log 
school house still remained, especially in the newer states, and 
although many of the text books were crude and undesirable, yet 

144 The pioneer school house was generally a small structure built of 
logs, with a puncheon door and two or three small windows. The building 
was generally placed on the edge of the forest, near a spring or river from 
which drinking water could be obtained The better buildings were supplied 
with puncheon floors, but generally earth answered this purpose. In the 
middle of the room was placed the large long wood stove. The benches on 
which the pupils sat were made of half logs hewn flat and smooth, and 
supplied with wooden pegs or legs. Higher benches made on the same plan, 
except that they were slanted, served as desks. 

19 



290 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the teachers were better prepared, the terms of school were long- 
er, and instead of there being a select few who could read and 
write, as was the case in Washington's time, in 1860 it was sel- 
dom a young person could be found who did not have a good 
common school education. 

504. Newspapers and Mails. — Marked advancement had also 
been made along the line of literature, newspapers, and mails. 
During Washington's time [Section 187] the newspaper only 
contained the local news, but with the establishment of the tele- 
graph, the newspaper contained all the current news of the 
United States. Instead of a weekly or tri-weekly mail as was 
the custom in Washington's administration, the people of the 
cities in 1860 received their mail daily. The daily newspaper 
was to be found at all news-stands, and generally all the people 
were well informed on topics of general interest. 

505. The Public Library. — Public libraries had also been 
established in nearly all the cities and in some of the larger 
towns. In these libraries the works of the best American and 
English authors were to be found. Here might be found school 
children, college students, and in fact all classes of people, read- 
ing the books on the subjects in which they were interested. The 
effect of the public library was tremendous. Next to the schools 
and newspapers, the public library was the strongest factor in 
the way of intellectual advancement. 

506. Home Life in 1860. — Home life in 1860 was much dif- 
ferent than in 1789 [Section 188]. Homes were more comfort- 
ble and convenient. The effect of immigration, combined with 
our democratic form of government, had extinguished all social 
distinction. People now intermingled freely. There was no 
such thing as the aristocratic, the middle, or the common people. 
All people were on the same social plane. While the cities were 
not supplied with all the conveniences to which we are accus- 
tomed in this day, yet a great advancement had been made. Street 
cars (drawn by horses) were found in all the larger cities, and 
in a few places parks had been laid out. In fact, advancement 
had been made along many lines which made the home more 
cheerful and comfortable. 



REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1861-1865 

507. Abraham Lincoln, President, 1861-1865. — On February 
11, 1861, President Abraham Lincoln bade farewell to the people 
at Springfield and started on his journey to Washington. He 
gave speeches at several of the principal cities, but when he 
reached Pennsylvania, rumors were in circulation that the pres- 
ident-elect would be assassinated, while on his way to the capital. 




ABRAHAM LINCOLN 



On this account Mr. Lincoln made the remainder of the journey 
in disguise, arriving at Washington on the morning of February 
23d. On March 4th, surrounded by a strong military force, 
he took the oath of office. In his inaugural address, he stated 
his position on the slavery question and secession in the follow- 
ing language : 

"In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not 



292 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The government 
will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being 
yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath registered in 
heaven to destroy the government; while I shall have a most 
solemn one to 'preserve, protect and defend it.' 

"I am loth to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We 
must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained, it 
must not break our bonds of affection. The mystic cords of 
memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to 
every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will 
yet swell the chorus of the union when again touched, as surely 
they will be, by the better angels of our nature." 

508. The Fall of Fort Sumter.— [Plate No. 8.] When South 
Carolina seceded from the union, Major Anderson, who had 
charge of the fortifications in Charleston harbor, fearing that he 
would be attacked, moved from Fort Moultrie over to Fort Sum- 
ter, which was a much stronger position. On January 5th, the 
steamer "Star of the West" carrying supplies to Major Ander- 
son, was fired upon by the southern people and forced to leave 
the harbor. President Buchanan in no way interfered in this 
matter nor did he do anything to relieve Anderson and his men, 
and soon they were in a vexatious dilemma, as their supply of 
food, medicine, and other necessary supplies had given out. 

The day after President Lincoln assumed the duties of chief 
executive, he received a message from Major Anderson stating 
that reinforcements and supplies must be sent to him immediate- 
ly, or he would be forced to abandon the fort. The federal gov- 
ernment acted promptly and a ship was immediately fitted out 
in New York harbor and dispatched to Anderson's relief. The 
seceded states learning of this, ordered General Beauregard to 
get control of Fort Sumter at once. Acting on this advice, on 
April 11th, Beauregard sent to Major Anderson a formal demand 
to surrender, and immediately received a reply which stated 
that if unmolested he would evacuate the fort on the fifteenth, 
unless previous to that time he had received supplies or contrary 
orders from Washington. This answer, of course, was unsatis- 
factory, and the next morning General Beauregard opened fire 
on the fort. The battle lasted for thirty-four hours, no one being 
wounded on either side. At the end of this time Major Ander- 
son surrendered, with the understanding that he and his men 
march out with the honors of war, being allowed to salute the 
flag and embark for Washington unmolested. [Note 122.] 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 



293 



The effect of this battle was marvelous. In the north party 
lines quickly vanished, and President Lincoln was urged by an 
enthusiastic people to save the union at all hazards. In the south 
the news was received with the greatest joy, and it was thought 
that in a short time the "Government of the Southern Confed- 
eracy" would be firmly established. 

509. Lincoln's Proclamation Calling for Volunteers. — The 
day following Major Anderson's surrender (April 16) President 




( J - 

CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA 



Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve for 
three months in protecting the capital at Washington and in 
recovering United States forts and arsenals which had been seized 
by the seceded states. This call was answered by three hundred 
thousand volunteers, who were composed of all nationalities, re- 
ligious faiths, political parties, who came from all the different 
walks of life. The day following the proclamation, troops began 
to arrive in Washington and operations for the protection of the 
city were begun at once. 

Soon after the president's proclamation, the states of Virginia, 



294 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas seceded from the union, 
and cast their fortunes in with the Confederacy. 145 

51 0. Davis 's Reprisals and Lincoln 's Blockade Proclamation. 
— On the same day that the volunteer troops began to arrive at 
Washington (April 17), Jefferson Davis, in a proclamation, made 
known that he would grant letters of marque and reprisal to all 
merchantmen who would prey on the commerce of the northern 




CONFEDERATE CAPITOL AT RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 148 

states. Lincoln soon (April 19) declared all the southern ports 
to be in a state of blockade, and in a short time, the federal navy 
was guarding every port from the Chesapeake Bay to Galveston. 
So effectual was this blockade that soon the only supplies received 
at the southern ports were brought in the long, low, fast sailing 

1*5 The states withdrew from the Federal Union in the following order : 
South Carolina, December 20, 1860; Mississippi, January 9, 1861; Florida, 
January 10; Alabama, January 11; Georgia, January 18; Louisiana, Jan- 
uary 26; Texas, February 1. 

146 The capital was removed from Montgomery, Alabama, to Eichmond, 
Virginia, in July, 1861. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 295 

blockade runners. The export of cotton alone decreased over 
150,000,000, the first year of the war. Soon the commerce of the 
south was completely destroyed. 

511. Campaign in West Virginia. — [Plate No. 8.] The 
mountainous region in West Virginia was not adapted to the 
raising of cotton, and so slavery did not exist to such an extent 
as it did in the eastern part of the state. For this reason the 
forty-eight counties west of the mountains were not in accord 
with the secession movement. Governor Letcher was anxious to 
hold this part of the state for the Confederacy, and with this end 
in view the Virginia militia was ordered to hold the territory by 
force. General McClellan 147 was sent to oppose this force, and 
by July had conquered all this part of the state. In 1862 this 
territory was admitted to the Union as a separate state under the 
name of West Virginia. 

512. Missouri Saved to the Union.— [Plate No. 7.] In Mis- 
souri the government was in the hands of people who were in 
sympathy with secession, although the majority of the citizens 
were doubtless loyal to the Union. Governor Jackson and the 
legislature did all within their power to force the state into the 
Confederacy, but through the prompt and energetic work of such 
men as General Nathan Lyon, Hon. F. P. Blair, Colonel Fremont, 
and General Halleck, Missouri was saved for the Union. 

513. Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware also Remain in the 
Union. — [Plate No. 8.] For some time Kentucky was undecid- 
ed whether to cast her fortunes with the Confederacy or to re- 
main true to the Union. In fact, she wished to be neutral, but 
this being impossible the most influential men called mass meet- 
ings. At these meetings it soon became apparent that the people 
were in favor of remaining in the Union. As soon as this senti- 
ment became known, the matter was soon settled, for thousands 
of volunteers rushed in from the free states and practically took 
charge of affairs. 

Although a slave state, Maryland also remained true to the 
Union, and Delaware, after listening to the pleas of the commis- 
sioners from Mississippi who urged the legislature and common- 
ly General McClellan graduated from West Point in the same class with 
"Stonewall" Jackson. He took an active part in the Mexican War and 
soon after the close of the war was sent by this government to Europe, where 
during the Crimean War, he made many valuable reports on the art of war. 
After his return to this country up and until the beginning of the Civil War, 
he was engaged in the railroad business, being president of the eastern 
division of the Ohio and Mississippi Eailroad when the war broke out. 



296 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

wealth to join the southern states, refused to do so, but remained 
loyal to the Federal constitution which she had been the first to 
ratify and adopt. 

514. Foreign Affairs. — The north was greatly surprised at 
this time by the position which England, France, Spain, and 
Portugal took in respect to the war between the north and the 
south. Hardly had the contest begun, when England recognized 
the Confederacy as a belligerent power. However, there were at 
least two good reasons for this action. 

In the first place Lincoln had been so successful in establishing 
the blockade over southern ports, that the English manufacturing 
establishments of cotton goods were nearly ruined, as they were 
no longer able to get cotton from the southern states ; the second 
cause grew out of the results of the high protective tariff which 
had recently been passed by the United States, on articles man- 
ufactured from iron. This tariff was so high that it resulted in 
the immediate development of the manufacturing interests of 
the northern states to such an extent that they were soon able 
to supply the entire demand for such goods. These conditions 
of course, left hundreds of thousands of working people of Eu- 
rope out of employment, and caused much distress in commercial 
and financial affairs (See note 170.) 

515. The Trent Affair. 148 — On account of the friendly atti- 
tude shown by these foreign governments toward the Confed- 
eracy, John M. Mason and John Slidell were sent by the Con- 
federacy as special envoys to England and France, to induce 
these nations to recognize the southern Confederacy as an inde- 
pendent nation. These men sailed from Charleston, South Car- 
olina, on one of the swift blockade runners, and at Havana went 
aboard the English mail steamer "Trent." Captain Charles 
Wilkes, who had command of one of the United States sloops of 
war, soon overhauled the Trent and seized the two men as pris- 
oners of war. The news of this seizure caused intense excite- 
ment. At first the people in the north approved of the action, 
but on second thought it was remembered that this mode of pro- 
cedure and seizure of men on the high seas was actually what 
caused us to enter into the "War of 1812. England soon demand- 
ed the return of the prisoners and the government promptly 
disavowed the action of Captain Wilkes and returned the pris- 

3 48 The Trent affair is fully discussed in Foster's A Century of American 
Diplomacy, pp. 366-376, and also in the following named volumes of the 
American Statesmen series: Abraham Lincoln, vol. i, ch. xii; William H. 
Seward, ch. xviii, and Charles Sumner, ch. xiii. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 297 

oners. This prompt action on the part of the United States 
probably averted a war with England. 

516. The Battle of Bull Run.— [Plate No. 8.] As fast as the 
Federal troops entered Washington they were put to work con- 
structing lines of earthworks for the protection of the city. While 
this was going on the volunteer troops were being drilled and 
organized into an army. The Confederates also had collected 
at advantageous points in the Shenandoah Valley and along the 
Potomac river, an army with which they hoped to capture the 
national capital. 

General Scott believed that by a concerted action, the troops 
might easily disperse the Confederate army in the vicinity of 
Washington and then march directly into Virginia and capture 
Richmond. With this idea in view, he ordered General Patter- 
son, who was northeast of Washington with an army of twenty 
thousand, to capture, or prevent the Confederates in the Shenan- 
doah Valley under Joseph E. Johnston from joining Beauregard, 
who was near Manassas Junction. General McDowell, who had 
charge of the Union forces along the river opposite Washington, 
was to move on Manassas Junction. Both the Union generals 
started to execute the work entrusted to them, but General Pat- 
terson for some unknown cause executed his work in such a man- 
ner that Johnston was able to place his entire army in a position 
where he could immediately assist Beauregard. On July 21st, 
McDowell attacked Beauregard in the vicinity of the little creek 
of Bull Run which was near Manassas Station. After four hours 
of hard fighting, the Federal forces were in possession of the 
field, and believed they had won the victory. However, at this 
moment, Johnston's trooj)s came upon the field and in a vig- 
orous charge, forced the Federal troops to retreat. The retreat 
soon became a stampede, and later developed into a regular panic, 
with cannons, guns, canteens, blankets, and everything which 
would in any way impede their flight, left behind. In fact the 
troops did not stop until they were safe within the fortifications 
around the city of Washington. 

517. The Effect of the Victory.— [Plate No. 8.] This victory 
inspired the south with such confidence that they believed they 
would soon be able to dictate terms of peace to the north. 

In the north the people now realized that the rebellion could 
only be put down by a large army, placed under competent 
leaders. In order that this might be realized, congress voted 
$500,000,000 for war purposes and President Lincoln issued a 



298 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

call for 500,000 more volunteers. General Scott asked to be re- 
tired and General McClellan, who was placed in command, at 
once began to drill, discipline, and organize the troops, for the 
battle of Bull Run had proven to the north that an army in 
order to be effective, must be well organized in all departments. 
One other incident occurred which is worthy of note. This 
was the capture by the Federals of the forts at Hatteras Inlet, 
North Carolina, and the forts at the entrance of Port Royal 
Sound, South Carolina. Port Royal from this time became the 
chief supply station of the Federals in the south. 

518. The Federal Plan of Campaign for 1862.— [Plate No. 
8. ] In order to defend the Union and at the same time put down 
the rebellion, the government at Washington planned the follow- 
ing operations : 

First, the establishment of a complete blockade of the southern 
ports. 

Second, the attack and capture of Richmond. 

Third, the opening of the Mississippi River. 

Fourth, in order to insure the success of these plans, the Fed- 
eral authorities planned to march an army from the line estab- 
lished by Confederate forces in the west, through the Carolinas 
to the Atlantic Ocean and thence northward into Virginia. 

519. Operations in the West. — [Plate No. 7.] In the west 
the Confederates under General Albert Sidney Johnston had 
established a line extending from Columbus on the Mississippi 
through Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the 
Cumberland to Mill Spring in Kentucky. General Halleck, who 
had charge of the Union forces in the west, wished to open the 
upper Mississippi and gain control of the cotton growing states. 
In order to do this he planned a general attack on the line estab- 
lished by General Johnston. 

520. Capture of Mill Spring, Fort Henry and Fort Donel- 
son. — [Plate No. 7.] The first attack was made in January by 
General George H. Thomas, who captured Mill Spring. The 
results of this battle were of much importance to the Union 
forces, for soon the entire eastern part of Kentucky and Cum- 
berland Gap passed into the hands of the Union forces, thereby 
opening a way by which the Union forces might enter eastern 
Tennessee. 

General Grant now was ordered to proceed with his army 
from Cairo, Illinois, and cooperate with Commodore A. H. 
Foote, who had been ordered north from St. Louis with his 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 



299 




ULYSSES S. GRANT 149 
(From an old engraving in grand jury 
room at Marion, Iowa) 



fleet of iron-clad river boats, and 
attack and capture Fort Henry 
and Port Donelson. 

521. Fort Henry surrendered 
to Commodore Foote before Gen- 
eral Grant arrived. Thereupon 
both forces proceeded to Fort 
Donelson where, after righting for 
three days, General Buckner, the 
Confederate commander, asked 
for an armistice until terms of 
capitulation could be agreed upon. 
Grant replied with his famous 
' ' Unconditional Surrender ' ' which 
is as follows: 

Hd. Qrs. Army in the Field, Camp 
Near Donelson, Feby 16, 1862 
Gen A. B. Buckner, 
Confed. Army 
Sir : Yours of this date pro- 
posing armistice and appoint- 
ment of commissioners to settle terms of capitulation is just re- 
ceived. No terms except an unconditional and immediate sur- 
render can be accepted. 

I propose to move immediately upon your works. I am sir, 
very respectfully, Your obt. servt. 

U. S. Grant, Brig. Gen. 
General Buckner, being convinced that further resistance was 
useless, surrendered the fort, fifteen thousand men, and large 
quantities of arms and ammunition and supplies to the Union 
forces. 

522. Battle of Pittsburg Landing and Island Number Ten. — 
[Plate No. 7.] General Grant now moved up the Tennessee 

149 Ulysses S. Grant was a graduate of West Point and served in the 
Mexican War. At the breaking out of the Civil War he was clerking in his 
father 's store at Galena, 111. At the beginning of the war a company of 
volunteers was organized at this place and Grant drilled them and remained 
with them until they were mustered into actual service. Soon after this, 
while engaged in the adjutant general's office, his knowledge of military 
affairs began to attract a great deal of attention, and soon he received the 
appointment of colonel of the twenty-first Illinois Infantry. His rise, from 
this time, was very rapid, for every movement which he made showed study, 
courage, skill, and sound judgment. His success in the western campaign 
led to his immediate appointment as major general. 



300 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

River. On April 6th, at Pittsburg Landing, he was attacked 
by General Albert Sidney Johnston, and for some time was 
forced, to retreat. Finally General Buell came to his aid and the 
contest was turned into a Federal victory. The battle of Pitts- 
burg Landing was one of the most stubbornly contested battles 
fought by the western armies and by many is considered one 
of the most important battles of the war. 

On April 8th the Confederates at Island. Number Ten surren- 
dered to Commodore Foote. He then proceeded down the river 
and about a month later Fort Pillow, situated just above Mem- 
phis, also passed, into his hands. 

523. The Effects of this Campaign.— [Plate No. 7.] By this 
campaign the Federals had gotten control of much of the ter- 
ritory of Kentucky and Tennessee, for Memphis was placed in 
such a position that she soon fell into their hands. The north 
had complete control of the Mississippi to Vicksburg. 

524. Capture of New Orleans. — [Plate No. 7.] While these 
forces were engaged in the west, other forces were in the south 
working with the same idea in view — the opening of the Mis- 
sissippi River. In March General Butler had concentrated an 
army of fourteen thousand men upon Ship Island, near the city 
of New Orleans, with a view of cooperating with Commodore 
Farragut and Captain Porter and the fleet in opening the Mis- 
sissippi and capturing the city of New Orleans. 

About seventy-five miles below the city of New Orleans were 
Fort Jackson and Fort Saint Philip, located on opposite sides of 
the Mississippi. On these forts, which were very strongly forti- 
fied, depended the safety of New Orleans. In order to obstruct 
the passage of the river, the Confederates had stretched across 
it just below Fort Jackson a strong chain which connected the 
hulks of a number of wrecked vessels. Above the forts and 
below the city of New Orleans, they had a very strong fleet con- 
sisting of rams and gunboats. 

After bombarding Fort Jackson for three days without any 
apparent effect, Commodore Farragut decided to run his ships 
past the forts. Protected by the darkness of night, two small 
gunboats proceeded up the river and cleared the channel by 
cutting the chain. On the morning of April 24th, while the 
forts were being shelled by the mortar boats, the Federal fleet 
succeeded in passing up the river, past the forts, and the 
next day, after successfully dealing with the fire rafts and boats 
loaded with burning cotton, which had been set adrift by the Con- 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 



301 




NATIONAL CEMETERY AT CHALMETTE 

Near New Orleans where are buried thirteen 
thousand Union soldiers 



federates, completely shattered the Confederate fleet. Commo- 
dore Farragut then sail- 
ed to the city of New 
Orleans, which was 
promptly surrendered 
to him. 

Thus the Confederacy 
lost not only its great- 
est commercial port, but 
its prestige abroad. It 
could no longer expect 
to receive recognition, 
from either France or 
England, as an inde- 
pendent nation. 

525. The Federals 
control the Mississipi 
River with the excep- 
tion of that part lying 
between Port Hudson 
and Vicksburg. — [Plate No. 7.] Soon after the fall of New 
Orleans, the Federal forces occupied Fort Jackson, Fort Saint 
Philip and the city of Baton Rouge. The remaining boats of 
the Confederate fleet were soon destroyed or captured, leaving 
the Mississippi River, with the exception of that part lying 
between Port Hudson and Vicksburg, in the hands of the 
Union forces. 

526. War in the East.— [Plate No. 8.] We have so far de- 
voted our attentions to the campaigns of the western armies. We 
will now pass over to the eastern part of the United States, where 
the government was keeping a close blockade over all the Atlantic 
coast, while McClellan. who had been drilling his troops near 
Washington, was planning for the capture of Richmond. 

527. The Plan of Campaign.— [Plate No. 8.] As to how this 
feat was to be accomplished, there was much difference of opinion. 
General McClellan wished to approach Richmond by the way of 
the James River, while the Federal authorities and the people 
wished him to march directly south so that the city of Washing- 
ton would at all times be protected by the Federal armies. After 
much discussion, the following plan was adopted : 

1. General Banks was to occupy the Shenandoah Valley and 
protect the city of Washington on the west. 



302 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

2. General McDowell was to move directly upon Richmond 
from Washington, thus protecting the city from that direction. 

3. McClellan was to approach Richmond by the way of the 
peninsula lying between the James and York rivers, using the 
York river as a basis for his supplies. 

528. The Two Iron-clad War Vessels. 150 — At the opening of 
the war, the Federal forces were forced to abandon the navy 
yards at Norfolk, Virginia. At this place there were large quan- 
tities of supplies, many guns, and eleven war-ships. In order to 
keep these from falling into the hands of the Confederates, the 
guns and supplies were destroyed and the war-ships were set on 
fire. One of the vessels, known as the "Merrimac," after burn- 
ing nearly to the water line, sank, and the Confederates on tak- 
ing charge of the navy yard, finding that the hull of the ship was 
in no way damaged, raised and rebuilt her into an iron-clad ves- 
sel, having a sloping roof, built of strong oak timbers and overlaid 
with heavy railroad iron. This roof extended several feet below 
the water line, and about ten feet above. The vessel was also 
fitted with a long iron beak which she could easily run through 
any of the wooden vessels then afloat. 

While the Merrimac (or Virginia as she was renamed) was 
being repaired, another iron-clad vessel, known as the "Moni- 
tor," was being built in the Brooklyn navy yard for the Federal 
government. This vessel was the invention of John Ericsson, 
and was so constructed that the greater part of her hull was below 
the water line and was covered with thick plates of iron. Upon 
the front part of the deck, which was also covered with iron 
plates, was a low conning tower from which place the vessel was 
steered. In the center of the deck was a revolving turret, made 
of steel and containing two eleven-inch guns. 

529. The Battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac.— 
[Plate No. 8.] On the 8th of March the Merrimac steamed into 
Hampton Roads, and off the coast from Fort Monroe she made 
straight for the frigate Cumberland and rammed a hole in her 
big enough for a man to enter. The Cumberland soon went down 
with all on board, including many wounded and sick. The Con- 
gress was also forced to surrender and was set on fire. The 
Minnesota, in order to escape the Merrimac, ran into shallow 
water where she was grounded. The Merrimac, being satisfied 
with her day's work, returned to Norfolk intending to return the 
next morning and complete the work which she had so ably begun. 

"0 Morse, Lincoln, i, 356; Hart's Contemp's, iv, 329. 



304 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



The news of this conflict immediately reached Washington, 
where all was consternation. It seemed that nothing could be 
done to prevent this ship from breaking the blockade, destroying 
Washington, New York, and all the other coast cities. During 
the night, however, the Monitor arrived and took her position 
beside the ill-fated Minnesota. 

The next morning the Merrimac again appeared, and made 
straight for the Minnesota, when suddenly the Monitor steamed 
from behind the Minnesota and began to hurl at the Confederate 
boat the solid shot from the two immense guns in her revolving 
turret. For two hours the iron-clad vessels poured into each 
other volume after volume, as fast as the heavy cannons could be 
reloaded. Several times the Merrimac tried to ram the Monitor, 
but the huge iron beak could make no impression on the iron- 
clad hull of the Monitor. 

Neither vessel could harm the other and finally the Merrimac 
withdrew to her moorings at Norfolk. 

530. Effect of the Battle. — Although the battle was a victory 
for neither side, yet the results were very much in favor of the 
north, for the blockade had not been raised, and Washington, 
New York, and other coast cities were safe. The contest had also 
eliminated forever from naval engagements the wooden war ves- 
sels of which the navies of the world were, at this time, composed. 

On this account the south was at a great disadvantage, for she 
had no iron manufacturing establishments and could therefore 
make but very few iron-clad boats, while the north, on account 
of her iron and ship building industries (Section 500), could and 
did build as many of this style of vessels as she needed. 

531. McClellan's Peninsular Campaign.— [Plate No. 8.] The 

day following the fight between the 
Monitor and the Merrimac, General 
McClellan began his campaign for the 
capture of Richmond. He first ad- 
vanced toward Manassas, where Gen- 
eral Joseph E. Johnston was stationed. 
Johnston now withdrew toward Rich- 
mond, and McClellan, placing his army 
|k (ninety thousand strong) on trans- 
I *orts, was carried down the Chesapeake 
to Fort Monroe, from which place he 
gen. george b. McClellan marched slowly toward Yorktown. 




SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 305 

532. Capture of Yorktown. 151 — [Plate No. 8.] When McClel- 
lan appeared before the city, he found that it was well protected. 
He therefore decided to take the place by siege. Heavy guns 
were ordered from Washington, and after a month of prepara- 
tion, just as he was ready to reduce the fortifications by bombard- 
ment, the Confederates (on April 4th) quietly evacuated the city 
and retreated toward Williamsburg, which place was also cap- 
tured by the Union forces two days later. McClellan gradually 
moved forward until he was within seven miles of Richmond. 

533. Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines, June 1. — [Plate No. 
8.] McClellan now moved the left wing of his army across the 
Chickahominy and camped along the Williamsburg and Richmond 
railroad between Pair Oaks and Seven Pines. Here he was at- 
tacked by Johnston and for two days the ground was closely con- 
tested by both sides. Finally the Confederates gave way and 

^yVigp^ retired to Richmond. 

/" U X \3\ During this battle General Johnston 

/ /Ajt'V* was wounded and was succeeded in 

/x^- ^fpvf® command by General Robert E. Lee. 

W'^.^'kJw '^" Stonewall Jackson's Raid in 

&'\*\$/: ! f^ the Shenandoah Valley.— [Plate No. 

*^^^' /W^Mt <C; -1 1S2 McClellan expected to be re- 

i^Lmh/ '''"'■ r '■''''''' P%k enforced by McDowell's armv, but 

;^>>W*7 ^■ : " if | Sf.mewall Jackson had suddenly ap- 

: ^P/i? t 7 7 " t peared in the Shenandoah Valley, 

'iW*' and the authorities at Washington 

gen. robert e. lee ordered McDowell's army to reenforce 

General Banks (Section 527), who 

had been attacked and defeated by Jackson. 

535. McClellan Changes his Base of Supplies. — [Plate No. 
8.] McClellan's supplies having been threatened on the York 
River, and being aware that he could now expect no aid from Mc- 
Dowell, he decided to change his base of supplies from the York 
River to the James River. This was a great undertaking, for he 
had more than five thousand wagons, loaded with provisions, be- 
sides twenty-five thousand cattle and other large quantities of 
ammunition, guns, and supplies. 

536. The Seven Days Battle, June 26 to July 2.— [Plate No. 

isi Schouler, History of United States, vi, 188-214; Paris, ii, 1-14; Mc- 
Clellan, xix-xxii. 

152 Paris, ii, 14-34; Jackson, 100-109; Rhodes, iii, 460. 

20 



306 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

8.] 153 Hardly had McClellan begun to move his supplies, when 
he was attacked with terrific energy by Lee and Jackson. This 
attack terminated in a series of battles which lasted for seven 
days, during which time the Federal troops were moved from 
the Chickahominy to Malvern Hill on the James River. At this 
place McClellan dealt to Lee such a blow that he was forced to 
withdraw his forces. 

General Halleck, who had gained much fame on account of the 
brilliant feats of Grant, Farragut, and Porter in the west, was 




Photograph by Toris 
SUNKEN ROAD ON BATTLEFIELD OP ANTIETAM WHERE MANY LIVES 

WERE LOST 



now given general supervision of the army, and he at once ordered 
McClellan to join Pope. McClellan consequently retreated slow- 
ly toward Fortress Monroe, from which place his army was trans- 
ported up the Potomac. 

537. Lee and Jackson Invade the North. — [Plate No. 8.| 154 
Before McClellan was able to join Pope, Lee and Jackson had al- 
ready started north. Pope moved his army southwest from Wash- 
ington across to Bull Run, where, on August 29th, he was attacked 

153 Paris, ii, 51, 148; Morse, Lincoln, ii, 56-64; McClellaii, eh. xxiii; 
Long, 156-160. 

1 54 Henty, With Lee in Virginia. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 307 

and defeated by Lee and Jackson. For a second time the Fed- 
eral forces fled from the battlefield of Bull Ran to the protection 
of the fortifications around Washington. 

The Confederates now moved into Maryland, where General 
Lee expected that the inhabitants would gladly join his army. 
In this, however, he was disappointed. 

538. Battle of Antietam, September 17.— [Plate No. 8.] Pope 
and MeClellan now joined their forces and attacked Lee's forces 
at the village of Sharpsburg near Antietam Creek. The contest 
by many is believed to be the bloodiest single day's battle of the 
war. The Federals lost over twelve thousand men and the Con- 
federates over eleven thousand. Lee was beaten back and re- 
treated across the Potomac unmolested. 

It was generally believed that MeClellan should have pursued 
the retreating Confederate army, and, on account of his over- 
cautious course of procedure, he was removed from command. 
General A. E. Burnside became his successor. 

539. Emancipation Proclamation. 155 — After the battle of An- 
tietam President Lincoln decided that it was expedient, as a war 
measure, that he emancipate the slaves in the seceded states. He 
therefore on September 22d, issued his "Emancipation Proclam- 
ation," in which he declared that after January 1. 1863, "All 
persons held as slaves in any state or designated part of a state, 
the people whereof shall be in rebellion against the United 
States, shall be then, thenceforth, and forever free." Thus by 
a single stroke of the pen. President Lincoln made free over three 
millions of people who had been reared in bondage. 

540. The Thirteenth Amendment. — It will be noticed that the 
emancipation proclamation did not free the slaves in the loyal 
states or in the territory already in the control of the Federal 
forces. However, in January, 1865, congress passed the "Thir- 
teenth Amendment," which provided that slavery should no 
longer exist in the United States. This did for the whole of the 
United States what the emancipation proclamation did for the 
seceded states. 

541. Burnside at Fredericksburg.— [Plate No. 8.1 General 
Burnside was as rash as MeClellan was cautious, and it is doubt- 
ed by many whether or not it was an act of wisdom on the part 
of the government in having him supersede MeClellan. 

On December 13th he attacked Lee, who was strongly en- 

155 Lincoln, ii, 508, 227, 396; Rhodes, iv, 67-76; Blaine, i, 435; Car- 
penter, 20-24. 



308 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



trenched at Fredericksburg, and met a crushing defeat. This 

was the closing battle of a series of 
defeats which marked an entire year 
of disaster to the Union forces in the 
east. 

542. Hooker in Command. — The 
army of the Potomac was completely 
demoralized by the disastrous battle 
of Fredericksburg. It was evident 
that General Burnside was incapable 
of handling the Federal troops in a 
way that they could successfully cope 
with General Lee and his Confederate 
forces. Again the authorities in 
Washington sought for a new commander and President Lin- 
coln named General Joseph E. Hooker ("Fighting Joe"), one 
of the most capable generals in the army, to succeed Burnside. 
General Hooker at once set to work to reorganize the army and 
in a short time had his command in a splendid condition. 




GEN. AMBROSE E. BURNSIDE 



THE YEAR 1863 
WAR IN THE WEST 

543. Capture of Vicksburg.— [Plate No. 7.] After General 
Halleck was called to Washington [Section 536] to take general 
supervision of the army, Grant was given the command of the 
army in western Tennessee. By November, 1862, he had gath- 
ered his forces together and commenced operations for the cap- 
ture of Vicksburg (the Gibraltar of the Mississippi) then occu- 
pied by the Confederate commander, General J. C. Pemberton. 
At first an attempt was made to capture Vicksburg by an attack 
from the land side, but here the army encountered many obsta- 
cles. Grant therefore decided to dig a canal across the neck of 
the peninsula which lies opposite Vicksburg, by which he hoped 
to divert the waters of the river into a, passage through which 
Porter's boats might pass up and down without being in danger 
from the batteries, but heavy rains set in and the river became 
dangerously high and the plan proved a failure. Grant there- 
fore moved his army down the west side of the river, crossed 
over and attacked the city from the south. 156 

General Pemberton now marched out from Vicksburg and at- 
tacked Grant, hoping also to be able to unite with General Jo- 
seph E. .Johnston, who was hastening with an army from the 
east to join him. Grant becoming aware of this plan, threw his 
entire force between the two Confederate armies, drove Pember- 
ton into the city of Vicksburg and forced Johnston to retreat. 
He then laid siege to the city, cutting it off from all supplies 
whatsoever. Pood soon became so scarce that mules, and even 
rats were eaten. Thousands and thousands of shells were thrown 
into the city; people left their homes and lived in caves, which 
they dug in the sides of tunnels which had been cut through the 
hills. After seven weeks of suffering General Pemberton, on 
July 4th. surrendered the city with thirty-two thousand men, 
one hundred seventy-two cannon, and thousands of stands of 
small arms. 

issSchouler, History of United States, vol. vi, 375-398. 



310 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

544. The Fall of Port Hudson. — [Plate No. 7.] Four days 
later Port Hudson also surrendered. The entire Mississippi 
River was now in control of the Union forces, while the Confed- 
eracy was cut in twain. 

Grant, on account of his brilliant and successful campaigns, 
now received the rank of major-general in the regular army, 
and received many testimonials of gratefulness from the people 
of the loyal states. 

545. Chattanooga and Chickamauga. — [Plate No. 7.] Af- 
ter gaining control of the Mississippi river, the next position of 
importance in the west to be gained by the Union forces was 
Chattanooga, which on account of its geographical position and 
railroad facilities, was the gateway to eastern Tennessee and 
Georgia. 

General Rosecrans, who had charge of the Army of the Cum- 
berland, remained inactive until in September, when in a series 
of movements he forced the Confederate army, under General 
Braxton Bragg, to withdraw from Chattanooga. Soon, howev- 
er, Bragg received reinforcements, and taking the offensive, he 
attacked the Union forces which now were stationed along the 
Chickamauga Creek. The first day (September 19), Bragg di- 
rected his attack against General George H. Thomas, who had 
charge of the left wing of the Union forces, but secured no great 
advantage. The next morning he attacked the right wing, 
sweeping the Federal right and center, including General Rose- 
crans, from the field. All now depended on Thomas. All day 
he and his troops fought against double their number, but dur- 
ing the night he slowly retreated. As soon as convenient he en- 
tered Chattanooga, where the shattered remnants of the army 
were again collected and reorganized. The Union forces were 
now shut up in Chattanooga, where they were practically in a 
state of siege for over two months. 

General Thomas virtually saved the Union army from defeat 
and on account of this brilliant feat was thenceforth known as 
the "Rock of Chickamauga," a title which he justly earned. 

546. The Battle of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. 
— [Plate No. 7.] The battle of Chickamauga and the siege of 
Chattanooga had clearly shown the inability of General Rose- 
crans to plan and execute great movements. Grant, who had 
proven himself equal to all the contests which had confronted 
him, was therefore given command over the entire department 
of the Mississippi, which included the Army of the Cumberland 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 311 

and the Ohio. General Thomas succeeded General Rosecrans 
as commander of the Army of the Cumberland. 

The Confederates held Lookout Mountain and Missionary 
Ridge, which overlooked the beautiful valley of Chattanooga. 
On November 23d General Thomas seized the works at the foot 
of Missionary Ridge. The next day General Hooker in the noted 
"Battle Above tbe Clouds" carried the works on Lookout Moun- 
tain. On the 25th the heights of Missionary Ridge were carried 
and General Bragg was forced to retreat to Dalton, Georgia, 

General Bragg was now superseded by General J. E. Johnston. 



WAR IN THE EAST 



547. Hooker at Chancellorsville, May 1 to 4.— [Plate No. 
8.] General Hooker, while reorganizing the Army of the Poto- 
mac [Section 542], secured a very important addition to the 
army, of twelve thousand well drilled cavalry. "With this addi- 
tion the Union army at Fredericksburg numbered one hundred 
and thirty thousand men. To oppose this force Lee could not 
muster more than seventy thousand men, but they were men 
who had complete confidence in their commander owing to their 
successes in previous battles. 

Hooker now started to put into operation a plan which he had 

outlined for the capture of Richmond. 
At Chancellorsville the two armies 
met and after a severe battle, which 
continued for four days, the Union 
forces were defeated with a loss of 
over sixteen thousand men. 

The north was greatly alarmed. The 
Army of the Potomac had again been 
defeated. Hooker became discourag- 
ed and at his own request was relieved 
of his command. General Geo. G. 
Meade was appointed to take his 
place. 157 

Lee now believed, if he could cap- 
ture one of the important northern cities, the European powers 
might yet recognize the independence of the Confederacy. With 

is- Battles and Leaders, iii, 244; Paris, iii, 451; Rhodes, iv, 268; Lin- 
coln, ii, 143. During this battle the brilliant Confederate general, T. J. 
Jackson (Stonewall Jackson), was mortally wounded by a shot fired by his 
own men, who mistook the general and his immediate command for Federal 
troops. He was removed from the field, and it was found necessary to 
amputate his left arm. Lee, observing the loss of the arm, said: "General, 
you have fared better than I, for you have lost only your left arm, while 
I have lost my right." So Jackson came to be regarded as the "right arm 
of the Confederacy." He died (May 10) a few days after the battle. 
' ' The South always believed that, had he lived, her cause would have 
won. ' ' — ■ Hosmer. 




GEN. GEORGE G. MEADE 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 



313 



this purpose in view, he started down the Shenandoah Valley 
and entered southern Pennsylvania. General Meade also put his 
army in motion, and the two forces met at Gettysburg. 

548. The Battle of Gettysburg.— [Plate No. 8.] The meet- 
ing of the two armies at Gettysburg was quite unexpected. 
Neither commander expected to fight the battle at this place, but 
Lee seemed to be best prepared for the conflict, for during the 




BATTLEFIELD OF GETTYSBURG 



Photograph by Voris 



first day the Union forces were driven back and for some time 
it seemed that the Confederates would carry everything before 
them. 

During the following night both generals arranged their forces 
for the contest of the morrow. During all the second day (July 
2d), the battle raged with terrible losses on both sides, no great 
advantage being gained by either army. 

About noon on the third day, Lee opened with his artillery on 
the Union center and for over two hours both armies threw shot 
and shell into the opposing forces. Finally the firing began to 
cease in the Union lines. Lee, believing the Union forces had 
exhausted their ammunition, ordered General Pickett with fif- 
teen thousand of the best troops of the Confederate army to 



314 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

attack the Union center. The two armies were about a mile 
apart and Pickett's division had passed over half this distance 
when the Union artillery again blazed forth. The slaughter was 
terrible. Entire companies were swept away, but the Confed- 
erate forces never wavered ; they were soon in range of the Union 
infantry, who thinned their ranks so fast that it seemed impos- 
sible that any could escape alive ; on they came ; a hand to hand 
struggle ensued. To General Pickett it soon became apparent 
that the Union army could not be forced back, and he gave the 
order to retreat. 

Soon the broken ranks of the Confederate army were slowly 
wending their way across the Potomac. 

549. The Results of the Battle. — During the battle the Fed- 
erals lost over twenty thousand in killed, wounded, and missing, 
while the loss on the Confederate side was more than a third of 
their entire army of over seventy-three thousand men. 

Lee well realized that these men could never be replaced. He 
could never again invade the North. From this time he would 
be compelled to fight on the defensive. 

It will also be remembered (Section 543) that it was at this 
same time that the "white flags" were waving from the Con- 
federate trenches at Vicksburg. 

The Union armies had been victorious in both the east and 
the west. 

550. Discontent in the North. — During the year 1862 [Sec- 
tion 541] , it will be remembered, the Union forces were not very 
successful. Consequently there arose many fault-finders who 
persisted in uttering and publishing statements which were detri- 
mental to the best interests of the government. In order to pro- 
tect itself, the Federal government, under the law of March, 

1862, arrested many prominent men throughout the states not 
occupied by military force, and confined them to prison, even 
going so far as to suspend the writ of ' ' habeas corpus. ' ' 

551. Draft Riots. 158 — The discontent which had naturally 
arisen from the publication of articles of a disloyal nature, in- 
tensified by the harsh and rigid action taken by the government 
in such affairs, combined with the conscription act of March, 

1863, had caused volunteer enlistments to almost cease. This 
condition may probably also be further accounted for from the 
fact that the tariff acts and the high prices of products made 
many very favorable business opportunities, which caused many 

158 Rhodes, iv, 320; Lincoln, ii, 381. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 315 

men of all classes to be willing to stay at home and devote 
their attention and time to speculation and business. 

As a result of this general dissatisfaction, in July, 1863, a riot 
broke out in New York City which for some time defied both 
city and state authorities. The Federal recruiting offices, and 
other valuable properties were destroyed. 

Federal troops finally arrived; but not until over a thousand 
of the rioters had been killed, was order restored. 

The Federal government now took complete charge of affairs 
and soon the work of drafting was allowed to proceed peaceably. 

552. Conscription in the South. — In the south as in the north, 
at first all the young men were eager to join the army, but as 
the great armies of the north were continually being hurled 
against their defenses, the south was forced to put into opera- 
tion the same methods that were used in the north, in order to 
fill its ranks. In April, 1862, an act was passed which made 
all white men between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five, sub- 
ject to draft. Later in the same year another bill was passed 
in which the ages were changed to eighteen and forty-five years, 
and near the close of the war the law was again modified so that 
all white people between the ages of sixteen and sixty were sub- 
ject to conscription. Well was it said, that the Confederate 
ranks included men "from the cradle to the grave." The con- 
scription law was more rigorously enforced in the south than in 
the north, and caused great suffering throughout the Confeder- 
acy. The slaves were also enlisted in the ranks. They did the 
work on the fortifications, drove the commissary wagons, and 
did all other work that was necessary to be done around the army 
camp. 



THE YEAR 1864 

553. Grant is made Lieutenant-General. — So far the different 
Union armies had acted independently of each other. President 
Lincoln had for some time seriously considered the necessity of 
having these armies act in unison, but found it very difficult to 
select a man who was capable of successfully managing all the 
Union forces. However, the events of the last two years had 
practically solved this question, for the man who had success- 
fully met all issues was General Grant. 

Early in 1864 Grant was summoned to Washington by the 
president and given the rank of lieutenant-general. This rank 
made him next in command to the president and gave him imme- 
diate command of all the Union forces. 

554. Plan of Campaign for 1864.— [Plate No. 8.] 159 Grant 
proceeded at once to make arrangements for the execution of the 
task which confronted him. General Meade remained in imme- 
diate command of the Army of the Potomac and General William 
Tecumseh Sherman was appointed to Grant's old command in 
the west. 

The military strength of the Confederacy lay in the forces 
under General J. E. Johnston in Georgia and Lee's army which 
was now stationed on their old camping ground, on the Rappa- 
hannock. 

Grant and Sherman soon formulated their plan of operations 
for the Union armies. Grant with the Army of the Potomac was 
to capture Lee's army and Richmond, while Sherman was to de- 
feat Johnston, gain control of the state of Georgia, and after 
touching at some point on the Atlantic Ocean, march north and 
join with Grant, providing Lee's army and Richmond had not 
been captured by this time. Both generals started on their cam- 
paigns in the early part of May. thus giving the Confederate 
armies no chance to aid each other. 



"9 Battles and Leaders, iv, 97-117; Grant, ii, 44-62. 



WAR IN THE WEST 



555. Sherman's Campaign against Atlanta. — [Plate No. 8.] 

On May the 4th General Sher- 
man with an army of one hun- 
dred thousand men started from 
Chattanooga on his campaign 
against Johnston. At Dalton 
(Georgia), he met Johnston's 
army of sixty-five thousand men, 
and drove him step by step 
through the mountainous coun- 
try of Georgia until they had 
reached the vicinity of Atlanta. 
Johnston not being strong enough 
to offer battle to the superior 
forces which were under Sher- 
man, constantly resisted the 
Union advance, retreating it is 
true, but ever ready to offer bat- 
tle when a favorable opportunity 
presented itself. On account of 
his method of conducting the 
campaign, President Davis and 

his chief of staff. General Bragg, removed Johnston from the 
command and appointed General Hood to take his place. 

Hood pursued much the same policy as did General Burnside 
when he superseded General McClellan as commander of the 
Army of the Potomac [Section 541], for in July he made three 
furious attacks in which he lost over ten thousand men. In Sep- 
tember, hoping to draw Sherman out of the State of Georgia, he 
abandoned the city of Atlanta and started northward. 

556. Sherman's March from Atlanta to the Sea. — [Plates 
Nos. 7 and 8.] This was exactly what Sherman wished. He now 
ordered General Thomas with sixty thousand effective men to 
Nashville to intercept Hood. Believing that Thomas was able to 
cope with Hood, Sherman now planned to march into the very 
heart of the Confederacy, depending upon the inhabitants of the 




GEX. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN 
From an old print at Court House, 
Marion, Iowa 



318 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

country for his provisions. Destroying all railroad communica- 
tions with the city of Atlanta, cutting the telegraph wires, and 
applying the torch to all public buildings, and severing his com- 
munication with the authorities at Washington, on November 
15th, Sherman with an army of sixty thousand men, marching in 
four columns, started from Atlanta on his celebrated march to 
the sea. 

When next heard from, Sherman was in front of the city of 
Savannah, having in his march destroyed everything which could 
be of any value to the Confederacy in a strip of country over 
three hundred miles, extending from Atlanta to Savannah, and 
forty miles in width. 160 

On December 21st he entered the beautiful city of Savannah 
(which had been evacuated by the Confederates) and immediate- 
ly sent to President Lincoln his famous dispatch, ' ' I wish to pre- 
sent you as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah, with one 
hundred fifty heavy guns, a plenty of ammunition and also about 
twenty-five thousand bales of cotton. ' ' 

557. Hood and Thomas in Tennessee. — [Plate No. 7.] 1G1 
After Sherman left Atlanta, General Hood crossed the Tennessee 
River and immediately began his march northward. Thomas, who 
had proven himself so eminently fitted to conduct a campaign, 
dispatched Schofield to delay Hood's advance northward as much 
as possible, in order that he might drill and get his army into the 
proper condition to successfully cope with the Confederate forces. 
General Thomas was so deliberate in this matter that the people 
of the north and even General Grant and the officials at Washing- 
ton, became very impatient. In fact they even went so far as to 
appoint General Logan as his successor, but before he could reach 
Nashville, Thomas had not only attacked, but had actually de- 
stroyed Hood's army to such an extent that it was never reorgan- 
ized. Thus Thomas had vindicated his policy of being well pre- 
pared, by one of the most brilliant victories of the war. In all 
his campaigns of the Civil War, General Thomas never lost a 
battle. 



160 The March to the Sea, by Gen. .7. I). Cox. 
1*1 Harris, A Little Union Scout. 



WAR IN THE EAST 

558. The Wilderness Campaign. — [Plate No. 8.1 As pre- 
rioasly arranged, on May 4th, General Grant, who had taken 
personal command of the Army of the Potomac, crossed the Rapi- 
dan River and entered the "Wilderness. On the second day, Lee, 
being confident that he could deal Grant a terrible blow, as he 
had previously dealt one to Hooker, attacked the Union army. 
For several days the fighting continued with terrible losses on 
both sides, but no advantage was gained by either side. Grant 
again pushed around Lee's right to Spottsylvania Court House, 
where for three days the fighting was terrible, and the loss was 
even greater than at the battle of the Wilderness. It was at this 
time that Grant sent his famous dispatch, saying, "I propose to 
fight it out on this line if it takes all Summer. ' ' 

On the first day of June, Grant's men advanced against Lee's 
right at Cold Harbor. 102 Here he ordered a general attack and 
in a half hour lost over twelve thousand men, while the Con- 
federates lost less than one thousand. Finding that it would be 
impossible to gain any advantage, Grant again resorted to his 
favorite movement, and again advancing on Lee's right, he 
crossed the James River and attacked Lee's forces at Peters- 
burg. Being unsuccessful again, he now settled down to a regular 
siege. 

During this campaign, the loss on both sides had been tre- 
mendous, while no special advantage had been gained by either 
side. 

559. Early Raids on the Shenandoah. 103 — In order to draw 
off Grant's troops from the siege of Petersburg. Lee resorted to 
his oft successful scheme of sending troops up the Shenandoah 
Valley to threaten Washington. 

In the early part of June, General Early, who was given com- 
mand of this expedition, appeared before the city of Washing- 
ton, and had he made his attack immediately, might have cap- 
tured the city. During the night, however, L T nion forces arrived 

162 Grant, ii, eh. vi, viii, xiii; Rhodes, iv, 440-448. 
!63 Parrish, My Lady of the North. 




320 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and Early was forced to retire. In the latter part of July lie ap- 
peared in the Shenandoah Valley, sweeping everything before 
him until he reached Chambersburg (Pennsylvania), which place 
he burned to the ground. 

Grant now decided to forever put an end to these raids up the 
Shenandoah Valley, and dispatched General 
Philip Sheridan with orders to attack Early 
and destroy everything in the valley which 
would be of any possible use to the Confed- 
erate Army, making it impossible for them 
to stay in the valley or ever again make a 
raid in that direction. Houses, barns, 
stock, crops, and in fact everything on which 
an army could exist was destroyed. On 
^^jr, ^V "• September 1!>th the two forces met at Win- 
chester, where, after a severe struggle the 
general philip h. Confederates were forced to retire. 

560. The Battle of Cedar Creek. 104 — 
Receiving reinforcements, Early, on October 19th, suddenly fell 
on the Union forces at Cedar Creek during Sheridan's absence, 
and so completely surprised them that the commanding officer 
ordered a general retreat towards Winchester, twelve miles away. 
The retreat soon became a panic and it seemed that the entire 
army might be destroyed. 

General Sheridan, who was at Winchester on his return from 
Washington, and hearing the cannonading, hurriedly mounted 
his horse and started for the scene of the battle. He met his dis- 
organized troops in full retreat and, rising in his stirrups, he 
dashed along the broken lines, with the command of "Turn, 
boys, turn ; we 're going back. ' ' The lines were soon reorganized 
and under the inspiring leadership of Sheridan, Early's forces 
were completely defeated and routed. This was the last raid in 
the Shenandoah Valley, for there was nothing left but the 
smoke and ruin of what had once been a very beautiful and 
productive valley. 

561. War on the Sea and Coast. — [Plate No. 8.] During the 
war several cruisers were constructed at the ship-building docks 
of England for use in the Confederate uavy. Our minister, Mr. 
Adams, repeatedly remonstrated with the English government 
against the building of these ships, but although their mission 

is* Sheridan, Personal Memoirs, ii, 66-92; Grant, ii, 204-224. 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 321 

was well known, they were allowed to be built, and oftentimes 
fitted out with guns, ammunition, and supplies from English 
factories. 

The most noted and destructive of these vessels was the Ala- 
bama. Sailing to and fro on the seas, she captured or destroyed 
nearly seventy of the Union merchantmen. Finally, in June, 
while sailing off Cherbourg in France, she was destroyed by the 
Union ship-of-war Kearsarge, under command of Captain J. A. 
Winslow. 

562. Farragut Enters Mobile Bay, August 5.— [Plate No. 7.] 
After the capture of New Orleans, Mobile became the stronghold 
and storehouse of the Confederacy. Here entered the blockade 
runners with supplies for the army from Europe, and from this 
place it was an easy matter to ship by railroad or river to other 
parts of the Confederacy. The city was protected by the Con 
federate fleet, including the iron ram Tennessee, and two power- 
ful forts built on the low-lying sand-shore guarding the entrance 
to the bay, about thirty miles below the city. 

On the morning of August 5th, placing his iron-clad vessels 
between the wooden vessels and the forts. Farragut advanced to 
the attack. In order that he might have a clear view-point from 
which he could direct the battle, Farragut had himself lashed to 
the rigging of his flagship. After a short but terrific contest, 
the Union fleet, with the loss of but one boat, safely passed the 
forts and entirely destroyed the Confederate fleet. 

Soon afterward the forts also surrendered, although the city of 
Mobile was not occupied by the Union forces until the following 
year. 

563. Fort Fisher Captured.— [Plate No. 8.] Early in Janu- 
ary, 1865, Fort Fisher, which defended the harbor of Wilming- 
ton, N. C, was captured by the Union forces. With the capture 
of this place the last Confederate fort was closed. 

564. Lincoln's Second Election and Inaugural Address. — 
During this year, while the struggle was being waged by the 
army and navy for the preservation of the Union, another strug- 
gle of equal importance was being waged by the voters in the 
presidential campaign. 165 

A faction, consisting of dissatisfied Republican politicians, 
known as the "Radical Republicans," called a convention and 
nominated for president. General John C. Fremont, but he, refus- 
ing to be a candidate, their efforts came to naught. The Demo- 
ns Rhodes, iv, 456-475; Blaine, i, eh. xxiv. 

21 



322 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

crats declared that the prosecution of the war had been a failure, 
and nominated General George B. McClellan. The Republican 
party, or more properly speaking, "The National Union" party, 
again nominated Lincoln, who received two hundred twelve of the 
two hundred thirty-three electoral votes. Andrew Johnson of 
Tennessee was chosen vice president. 

In his inaugural address, Lincoln left no doubt but that the 
war would be prosecuted until the Union was restored and the 
slaves freed, for he said, "Yet if God wills that it [the war] 
continue until all the wealth piled up by the bondman's two 
hundred fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until 
every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by an- 
other drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years 
ago, so still it must be. 'The judgments of God are true and 
righteous altogether. ' With malice towards none ; with charity 
for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the 
right, let us strive to finish the work we are in ; to bind up the 
nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the bat- 
tle, and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may 
achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves, 
and with all nations. ' ' 



THE YEAR 1865 

565. The Fall of Richmond.— [Plate No. 8.] 1G6 During the 
winter and spring, Grant continued the siege in and about Rich- 
mond. Lee had hoped to break through the Federal lines and 
join another Confederate force which had been raised and placed 
under the command of General J. E. Johnston at Goldsboro, 
North Carolina, but the Union forces were so arranged that this 
was impossible. On Sunday, April 2, Grant made a general 
attack upon the Confederate forces and it soon became apparent 
that Richmond must be evacuated. President Jefferson Davis, 
who was in his place in church, received a note to this effect from 
General Lee, and hastily departed from the city. On April 
3d the Federal forces entered the city, and six days later 
Grant received the surrender of the Confederate army under 
General Lee at Appomattox. 107 

i<56 Grant, ii, 174-204; Humphreys, ch. vii, xii ; Sage, The Claybomes. 

167 Grant, ii, ch. xxii-xxv; J. Davis, ii, 661-678. It is also interesting to 
note that in the preparation of the terms of surrender of Lee 's Army and 
the acceptance of the same, use was made of a domestic table. Confederate 
ink, and Union paper. Then as a most extraordinary and fitting sequel to 
the great struggle which had been waged between the North and the South, 
a full blooded Indian (a chief) was called upon to write out the immortal 
document which re-united the two sections again into one great nation. Gen- 
eral Horace Porter, who was at this time on General Grant's staff, in an 
article ''The Surrender at Appomattox," in Century War Books, no. 20, 
p. 316, very graphically describes this incident, as follows: 

"He (Lee) handed the draft of the terms back to General Grant, who 
called Colonel T. S. Bowers of his staff to him and directed him to make a 
copy in ink. Bowers was a little nervous, and he turned the matter over to 
Colonel (afterward General) Parker, whose hand- writing presented a better 
appearance than that of any one else on the staff. Parker sat down to 
write at a table which stood against the rear side of the room. Wilmer 
McLean 's domestic resources in the way of ink now became the subject of 
a searching investigation, but it was found that the contents of the conical- 
shaped stonew T are inkstand which he produced appeared to be participating 
in the general breaking up and had disappeared. Colonel Marshall now came 
to the rescue, and pulled out of his pocket a. small boxwood inkstand, which 
was put at Parker's service, so that, after all, we had to fall back upon the 
resources of the enemy in furnishing the stage 'properties' for the final scene 
in +he memorable drama. 

"Lee in the mean time had directed Colonel Marshall to draw up for his 
signature a letter of acceptance of the terms of surrender. Colonel Mar- 



324 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

After the surrender, General Lee returned to his command, 
and to them in a trembling and sorrowful voice said : "Men, we 
have fought through the war together. I have done the best I 
could for you. My heart is too full to say more." The follow- 
ing day, bidding farewell to the soldiers, who had fought so 
valiantly while in the Army of Northern Virginia, General Lee, 
with a few friends, left for Richmond. 

565. Death of President Lincoln. — On the evening of April 
14th (just four years after the surrender of Fort Sumter and 
five days after the surrender of Lee at Appomattox) John 
Wilkes Booth, an actor, stealthily entered a box at Ford's 
Theater in Washington, which was occupied by the Lincolns 
and some friends, and shot the President. No more tragical 
event ever happened in the annals of American history. The 
president fell forward, and never regained consciousness. He 
died early the next morning. 168 

shall wrote out a draft of such a letter, making it quite formal, beginning 
with ' I have the honor to reply to your communication, ' etc. General Lee 
took it and, after reading it over very carefully, directed that these formal 
expressions be stricken out and that the letter be otherwise shortened. He 
afterward went over it again and seemed to change some words, and then 
told the colonel to make a final copy in ink. When it came to providing the 
paper, it was found we had the only supply of that important ingredient in 
the recipe for the surrender of an army, so we gave a few pages to the 
colonel. . . 

( ' While the letters were being copied, General Grant introduced the gen- 
eral officers who had entered, and each member of the staff, to General Lee. 

"The general shook hands with Seth Williams, who had been his adjutant 
when Lee was superintendent at West Point, some years before the war, 
and gave his hand to some of the other officers who had extended theirs, 
but to most of those who were introduced he merely bowed in a dignified 
and formal manner. He did not exhibit the slightest change of features 
during the ceremony until Colonel Parker of our staff was presented to him. 
Parker was a full-blooded Indian, and the reigning chief of the Six Nations. 
When Lee saw his swarthy features, he looked at him with evident surprise, 
and his eyes rested on him for several seconds. What was passing in his 
mind probably no one ever knew, but the natural surmise was that he at 
first mistook Parker for a negro, and was struck with astonishment to find 
that the commander of the Union armies had one of that race on his per- 
sonal staff." 

168 Walt Whitman, "My Captain, O My Captain;" also, Century Maga- 
zine, April, 1896, in "Four Lincoln Conspiracies." 

The assassin was an actor, Wilkes Booth, who was one of the Virginia 
soldiers who were on duty at the execution of John Brown. Booth was shot 
a fortnight later near Bowling Green, Virginia, by Sergeant Boston Corbett, 
who, with a company of men, was hunting for him. On the 7th of July 
three men and a woman were executed for complicity in the assassination. 

At the same time that Booth shot President Lincoln, another assassin 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 



325 



Andrew Johnson, the vice president, immediately took the oath 
of office and assumed the duties of the president of the United 
States. 

567. Sherman Marches North.— [Plate No. 8.] After resting 
his army for a month at Savannah, on February 1st, General 
Sherman and his army started across South Carolina to Colum- 
bia, which place they reached about the middle of February. 
From this place they started into North Carolina where they 
again met General J. E. Johnston. After severe fighting, John- 
ston, on April 26th, was forced to surrender his entire army, 
near Raleigh, North Carolina. 169 



^WTRWW^W^ 



Photograph by Yoris 
NATIONAL CEMETERY NEAR WASHINGTON 
(Home of General Lee) 

568. The Disbanding of the Army. — All now realized that 
the war was at an end. The other small Confederate forces 
winch were farther to the west, soon surrendered. The soldiers 
of the conquered army were allowed to take to their homes their 

attempted to murder Secretary Seward, who was ill at home, and wounded 
him seriously, but not fatally. There had been a plot, at the time of the 
downfall of the Confederacy, to pull down the leaders of the nation ; but it 
was the plot of only a few men, who perished miserably. — ■ Scudder. 
169 Sherman, ii, ch. xxii ; Grant, ii, ch. xix, xx. 



326 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

horses and such other things which would be of any use to them 
on their farms or in their shops. The Union soldiers treated their 
conquered brothers as they would have treated a friend in dis- 
tress. The Union army was soon disbanded, and with assur- 
ance of friendship and good cheer, the northern soldier and his 
"brother of the South" separated, both sworn to vie with each 
other in endeavoring to make the "re "-United States the great- 
est nation this world has ever known. 

569. Cost of the War. — No correct estimate can be made of 
the loss of life and property, but from the most conservative esti- 
mates it is believed that the loss of life, in battle, from wounds 
and from disease, in both the North and the South was not far 
from 650,000 men. This means that between seven and eight 
hundred men died each day during the entire war. 

The cost in property and money to both sections has been esti- 
mated at eight billion dollars. The National debt, alone, on 
August 31, 1865, was nearly two billion, eight hundred fifty 
million dollars. 

570. How the Money was Raised. — In order to raise money 
to carry on the war, the nation resorted to at least five different 
methods. 

(1) By direct taxation in which all incomes of eight hundred 
dollars or more a year were taxed, each state also being taxed ac- 
cording to the population. 

(2) An "Internal Revenue Tax" levied in the shape of stamp 
duties. All drugs, marriage certificates, and in fact legal paper's 
of all kinds, in order to become legal, were required to be stamped 
with one of these stamps. 

(3) A high protective tariff. 170 

(4) The sale of interest bearing bonds. 

(5) Notes and currency. These notes were of two kinds, the 
"Greenback" and the "Interest Bearing Treasury Notes." The 
"Greenback," like common paper currency, was payable to the 

i7o A high protective tariff known as the Morrill tariff was passed March 
2, 1861. 

As this bill raised the duties considerably, it was the means of bringing 
into the treasury an increased amount of money. It also tended to en- 
courage home manufactures, as it was essentially a protective tariff. 

During the next three years the tariff was repeatedly revised and duties 
made higher and higher. No essential change was made in the tariff laws 
after the war until 1884 when Mr. Cleveland was elected on a general 
reform platform. (See Section 514.) 



SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 327 

holders on demand. The "Interest Bearing Treasury Notes" 
were of several kinds and were very popular. 

It also became necessary to issue fractional paper currency for 
the simple reason that the silver coin became very scarce; in fact 
silver nearly disappeared from circulation. 



PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION (1865-1877) 




571. Andrew Johnson President, 1865- '69. — The new presi- 
dent was a man of strong conviction, firm 
resolution, and great determination. Brought 
up in the south where slavery existed, a Dem- 
ocrat and states-rights man by political faith, 
yet he believed that "the Union should be 
preserved," and on account of this convic- 
tion he refused to follow his state (Tennes- 
see) when it left the Union at the opening 
of the Civil "War. The firm stand which he 
had taken made him the logical man to be 

president Andrew selected for the vice presidency by the Re- 
johnson publicans, who wished to place some one on 

the ticket who would be acceptable to the war Democrats. He 
was therefore nominated as vice president, on the ticket with 
Abraham Lincoln. 

572. Johnson carries forward Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruc- 
tion. 171 — For some time previous to the closing of the war, Lin- 
coln had been devising plans by which the seceded states might 
be reinstated to their rights in the Union. After Lee's sur- 
render, these states were left, practically, without any form of 
government whatever. President Johnson, following the course 
as planned by Lincoln, at once began to make arrangements 
whereby some form of civil government might be established in 
these states. With this end in view, he appointed provisional 
governors, provided for the convening of the state legislatures, 
reestablished the United States mail service, opened to trade all 
the southern ports, and provided for the collection of the reve- 
nues and taxes. 

The provisional governors of the different states called con- 
stitutional conventions, where delegates (who had been elected 
by the white vote only) proceeded to (a) ratify the thirteenth 
amendment, (b) declare that the Confederate war debt was 

i7i Page, Tied Bock; Caldwell, American History; Blaine, ii, ch. viii, xii; 
Hart, Contemp's, iv. 



PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 329 

"null and void" and should never be paid, and (c) deny the 
right of any state to secede from the federal Union. 

These requirements being complied with, the seceded states 
proceeded to elect their representatives and senators to congress. 

573. The Freedmen's Bureau Bill. — At the close of the war, 
those who had been slaves were left without any means of sup- 
port whatsoever. Consequently, in March, 1865, congress passed 
a law which established in the war department a branch known 
as the "Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands." 
It was the business of this department to provide food, clothing, 
and fuel for destitute negroes, to take possession of abandoned 
lands in the seceded states and divide them among the loyal male 
refugees and negroes, not more than forty acres being given to 
any one individual. 

The purposes of the bill were good, but the actual results were 
bad in the extreme, for many of the negroes, believing that the 
government would support and protect them, became a class of 
indolent, insolent, and abusive loafers, who soon were dangerous 
to the general public. 

574. The Southern States also Pass Laws Regarding the Ne- 
gro. — The legislatures of the southern states, on account of the 
prevailing conditions, caused to some extent by the effects of the 
Freedmen's Bureau bill, passed laws aimed at the pauper negro 
population, which virtually placed these defenseless people in 
bondage, for these laws provided that the courts could inflict a 
heavy fine against any negro who refused to work for the "cus- 
tomary wages," and if the fine was not paid immediately said 
negro might be sentenced to work for some white citizen until 
such fine was declared paid. Of course the "customary wages" 
were extremely small. Consequently many of the negroes abso- 
lutely refused to work, and the fines which were imposed on them 
were of such a nature that such negroes virtually became slaves. 

575. Congress Refuses to Seat the Representatives and Sen- 
ators from the Seceded States. — The policy of the president in 
establishing provisional governments in the seceded states, as 
explained in Section 572, was generally conceded to be a wise 
and well executed plan. However, the president also believed 
that when these states had adopted these measures, their 
representatives and senators should be allowed to take their 
places in congress. This congress absolutely refused to permit, es- 
pecially since these states had passed such severe laws regarding 
the unemployed negro. Congress also contended, that since the 



330 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

negro was free, and that in the apportionment of representatives 
in congress all negroes would be counted, instead of three-fifths 
(see constitution of United States), therefore they should also be 
given the right to vote. 

576. The Civil Rights Bill.— At the time that the Freedmen's 
Bureau bill was introduced in the senate, another bill was pre- 
sented, although it did not become a law until a later date. This 
bill provided that all negroes and slaves should be citizens of the 
United States, and gave to them the right of suffrage and the 
right to sue in the United States courts. 

This bill, in order to become a law, had to be passed over the 
president's veto. 

577. The Fourteenth Amendment. — It was feared by many 
that some succeeding congress might repeal the civil rights bill. 
Therefore, in 1866, the fourteenth amendment, which embodied 
the principles of the civil rights bill, was passed by congress. 
During the year 1868 this amendment was duly ratified and be- 
came a part of the constitution. 

The acceptance of this amendment by the seceded states was 
made necessary, before congress would admit their senators and 
representatives. 

578. The Breach Between the President and Congress Wid- 
ens. — It now seemed that both the president and congress took 
great delight in doing those things which they knew would be 
displeasing to the other. It was nearing the time for the con- 
gressional election and the president made a tour of the west, 
giving a series of lectures in which he denounced congress in a 
very imprudent manner. Some of the members of congress were 
as inconsiderate as the president, and in their conversations and 
speeches regarding the president, they were so unmindful of re- 
sults that they to a great extent brought dishonor on their official 
position. 

579. The Tenure of Office Act.— In February, 1867, congress 
passed the tenure of office act, which provided that officers ap- 
pointed by and with the consent of the senate could not be re- 
moved without the consent of that body. It will readily be seen 
that this was appropriating, by the legislative branch of the 
government, the powers and prerogatives of the executive branch. 

580. Impeachment of the President. — The trouble between 
the president and congress came to a crisis when, in February, 
1868, the house of representatives passed a resolution to impeach 
the president for "high crimes and misdemeanors," the princi- 



PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 



331 



pal charge being the attempt to remove Secretary of War E. M. 
Stanton without the consent of the senate. After a long and tedi- 
ous trial before the senate the president was acquitted, the nec- 
essary two-thirds majority for the conviction lacking but one 
vote. 172 

After the president's acquittal, Secretary Stanton at once sent 
his resignation to the president. 




TEAM OF ESQUIMAUX DOGS 
Used for transportation purposes on the Alaskan trails 



581. The Purchase of Alaska. 173 — In 1867 (before the resig- 
nation of Mr. Seward and through his efforts), we were able to 
purchase from Russia for $7,200,000 the territory of Alaska. 

172 Blaine, ii, ch. xiv. 

173 Another noteworthy event of this administration was the successful 
attempt to lay a cable across the Atlantic ocean. In 1866 (a previous at- 
tempt in 1858 having failed), a telegraphic cable was laid upon the bed of 
the Atlantic between America and Europe. This cable was followed by 
others; but a closer connection between the United States and the Old World 
than any effected by the telegraph is formed by the constant passage back 
and forth of people. With the close of the war, immigration, which had 
suffered a check, increased rapidly. From 1871 to 1880 nearly three mil- 
lions, and from 1881 to 1890, more than five millions, of people migrated to 
the United States. During the decade ending 1900, nearly four millions 



332 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Although, at the time of the purchase, many people believed we 
had paid more than it was worth, the recent discoveries of large 
coal and gold fields, its fisheries, and many other natural re- 
sources, have shown the wisdom of the transaction. 

582. Mexico and Maximilian, 174 1864-1867.— Previous to the 
Civil War, Mexico had become badly indebted to Great Britain, 
France, and Spain, and as Mexico was unable to meet these 
obligations, these nations sent troops, which took charge of the 
seaports until the debts were paid. 

When the obligations were cancelled, Great Britain and Spain 
at once withdrew their forces, but Napoleon III, believing there 
was a good opportunity to extend the French dominion, instead 
of removing his troops, proceeded to depose the head of the Mex- 
ican government and appointed in his stead Maximilian, arch- 
duke of Austria, as emperor. According to our interpretation 
of the Monroe doctrine this had to be considered " as an unfriend- 
ly act," but as we were engaged in a Civil War, the only thing 
we could do was to protest. However, as soon as the war was 
over, Secretary Stanton requested the French emperor to with- 
draw from Mexico all the French troops immediately, and in 
order to emphasize the demand General Sheridan with fifty thous- 
and troops was ordered to Texas. The French troops were with- 
drawn, but Maximilian, believing that the Mexicans would still 
continue to be his loyal subjects, remained. 

In this he was mistaken, for as soon as the French troops were 
withdrawn, the Mexicans seized Maximilian and, after a short 
trial, he was condemned and shot (June 19, 1876). The Mexi- 
cans now quietly passed back under the republican form of gov- 
ernment. 

583. The Carpetbaggers. — At the close of the war the gov- 
ernment at Washington disqualified the leaders and officers of the 
southern Confederacy, so that they were not permitted to hold 
any office of public trust. Of course the poor whites and the ne- 
groes were unfit and incapable of carrying on matters of this 
nature. Consequently, many adventurous politicians (known as 
carpetbaggers (from the fact that it was said they packed their 
goods in a carpetbag) from the north moved to the south for the 
express purpose of getting control of the government. Had they 

of immigrants have swelled the population of the country. From 1789 to 
1900, a period of one hundred and five years, the United States has ab- 
sorbed an alien population of over eighteen millions. — Seudder. 
174 Caldwell, American History. 



PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 333 

carried on the official business in an upright and straightforward 
manner, it would not have been so bad, but instead, in official 
business the most corrupt and debased methods w T ere pursued. 
Taxes increased over fifty per cent and often times, instead of 
being used for the public good, they were actually stolen by these 
carpetbag officials. It must be admitted also, to the shame of 
all patriotic citizens, the Federal government supported and pro- 
tected the "carpetbag government." 

584. The ' ' Ku Klux Klan. ' ' — It now became absolutely neces- 
sary for the people of the south to do something in order to pro- 
tect themselves, their homes, and property. It soon became ap- 
parent that they must regain control of their state governments, 
and with this end in view, many combinations and secret organi- 
zations were formed. Probably the most distinguished of these 
secret organizations was the one known as the "Ku Klux Klan." 
This organization had for its object the intimidating of the black 
voter, for it was by this vote that the "carpetbaggers" were able 
to keep control of the government. 

Had this society confined its energy to this work alone, it would 
not have been so bad, but in time it became the medium through 
which much wickedness and private revenge was carried out. 

585. The Fifteenth Amendment, 1869.— A great deal of 
trouble still existed in regard to the negro voting. Consequently, 
in February, 1869 (just before Grant's inauguration), congress 
passed the fifteenth amendment which declared that the right to 
vote should not be denied or abridged in the United States or 
any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servi- 
tude. This bill was duly ratified by the necessary number of 
states and was declared in force March 30, 1870. 

586. Force Bills. — On account of the extreme harsh methods 
used, to intimidate the negro and keep him from voting, by the 
Ku-Klux and kindred clans, congress passed, under provision of 
the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments, the series of bills known 
as "force bills." Under the provisions of these bills Federal 
troops were stationed at the voting places during elections to 
protect the voter, and persons found guilty of trying to intimi- 
date voters were dealt with severely by the United States courts. 

587. The Presidential Election. — "While the impeachment 
troubles were still being discussed and the quarrel over recon- 
struction w r as still being waged, the presidential campaign was 
being fought. 

The Republicans nominated General U. S. Grant for presidenl 



334 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and Schuyler Colfax for vice president. This party declared that 
the United States bonds should be paid in coin and favored the 
existing plan of reconstruction. 

The Democrats selected as their candidates Horatio Seymour for 
president and General Francis P. Blair for vice president. This 
party declared for a complete pardon for those who had been en- 
gaged in the Rebellion, that government bonds might be paid in 
any legal tender (this virtually meant greenbacks, which were at 
this time much below par), and requested that all government 
bonds be taxed. 

Grant and Colfax were elected by a big majority. 



REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 18694877 

588. Reconstruction Completed. — In January, 1871, Georgia, 
the last state to comply with the requirements of congress, had 
completed the process of reorganizing its plan of government, 
and was admitted to the Union. This completed the work of re- 
construction hy congress. 

589. Amnesty Bill and Withdrawal of Troops from the 
South. — Although the states were now all in the Union, the gov- 
ernment still retained in the south certain military forces to 
protect the colored man. However, it soon became apparent that 
the mass of the people of the south were law-abiding citizens, who 
were doing all in their power to better conditions in the south. 
Although once enlisted in the Confederate army, they were now 
good, upright, and loyal citizens of the Union. Congress appre- 
ciated this fact, and in 1872 that body passed a general amnesty 
bill, pardoning all who had been engaged in rebellion against the 
United States, with the exception of a few of the more prominent 
leaders, but still retained her troops in this section, to keep a 
watchful eye on the elections. 

As fast as the troops were removed, the state governments of 
the south quietly passed into the hands of the more responsible 
class of individuals, and the new south began to regain her lost 
prestige in the nation. 

590. The Great Trans-continental Railway. 176 — The abun- 
dance of good and productive farming land in the middle west 
brought forcibly to the attention of the people and government 
the necessity of having a trans-continental railroad, for without a 
quick and substantial means of transportation this vast section 
of our country could not be developed. Consequently, about 1862 
two companies (the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific) were 
formed, and as soon as possible began work on the trans-conti- 
nental system. 

The former company started at Omaha, Nebraska, building 
westward, and the latter from Sacramento, eastward to a point 
where the two roads met near Ogden, Utah, where the last spike 
was driven May 10, 1869. 

In order to meet the expense of building this road, the com- 

"6 Bret Harte, "What the Engine Said." 



336 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

panies borrowed money from European nations, from the United 
States government, and in addition received the odd numbered 
sections in a strip of land twenty miles in width along the entire 
route of the railway. 

This line of railroad passed over hundreds and hundreds of 
miles of undeveloped and unpeopled territory, yet so successful 
was the venture that within a few years other trans-continental 










Courtesy B. & O. Railroad Co. 
A MODERN MAMMOTH FREIGHT ENGINE 



lines were being built. In addition to the trans-continental lines, 
other roads were also being built. The Southern Pacific, which 
extends to the Pacific Ocean, was finished in 1883. The Santa Fe, 
which extends into the southwest, was built about the same time. 
591. The Credit Mobilier. — In the building of the Union Pa- 
cific and the Central Pacific railroads a scheme was devised, 
whereby the companies let the contracts to themselves, operating 
under a different charter known as the Credit Mobilier. So fla- 
grant were the methods employed by this company that govern- 
ment officials (congressmen) received bribes, in the form of 



PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 337 

stocks in the Credit Mobilier, supposedly for certain favors which 
the company expected to receive from congress. 

So strong was the public sentiment against these practices that 
the granting of public lands or subsidies by the government to 
corporations practically ceased. 

592. The Whiskey King. — During the year 1872 a combina- 
tion was formed by certain distillers and revenue officers, where- 
by the government was defrauded of money, by keeping back 
part of the money on whiskey and other distilled liquors. 

This affair was brought to light in 1875, and upon investigation, 
it was found that the government had been defrauded of nearlv 
$2,000,000. 

593. Salary Question and the Salary Grab. — When compared 
with the salaries paid to public officers by foreign nations, the 
salaries paid to its officers by the United States government have 
always been meager. In fact, it is declared upon good authority 
that the salaries received by many officers of the United States 
are insufficient to meet the demands upon these officers in order 
that they may uphold the dignity of the office which they oc- 
cupy; consequently, in March, 1873, congress proceeded to raise 
salaries of most of the important officers, including the speaker 
of the house of representatives, which was raised from $8,000 to 
$10,000, and those of senators and representatives, raised from 
$5,000 to $7,500. Had congress stopped here, it is probable no 
trouble would have arisen, but by another act, which is known as 
the "salary grab," congress made the change in the salaries of 
its own members date back to 1871. This aroused indignation to 
such an extent that it became necessary for the act to be repealed, 
and, in fact, the next year all the salaries which had been raised 
were reduced to their former figures, except those of the president 
and the justices. 

594. Grant's Second Term. — Although the president was not 
in any way identified in any of these scandals, yet on account of 
these many misdeeds in both the financial and political world, 
and in addition to the strong feeling among many of the Republi- 
cans, who believed that congress was too severe in its treatment 
of the south, a branch of the Republican party known as the 
"Liberal Republican party," nominated for president Horace 
Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune. The Democrats were 
not strong at the time, and accepted the nominee as their candi- 
date. However, Grant carried all but six states, and was elected. 
Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, was elected vice president. 



338 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

595. Treaty of Washington and the Geneva Award. — A not- 
able example of the great advancement in the method of dealing 
with international affairs was exemplified in the settlement of the 
differences which existed at this time between the United States 
and Great Britain. 

This nation was of the opinion that it had a just claim against 
Great Britain, for injury done to our trade and commerce by the 
English Confederate war vessels, especially the Alabama [Sec- 
tion 561], during the Civil War. 

On May 5, 1871, an agreement, known as the treaty of Wash- 
ington was entered into, by which the United States and Great 
Britain arranged to submit their differences to an arbitration tri- 
bunal, consisting of commissioners from five friendly nations. 
This tribunal met at Geneva, Switzerland, and awarded to the 
United States the sum of $15,500,000, which Great Britain paid 
in the most honorable and courteous manner. Since this time 
many serious questions have been submitted to arbitration by 
Christian nations. 

596. Trouble with the Western Indians. — Although in the 
preceding paragraph we note with pride the methods pursued in 
our settlement of differences with Great Britain, yet in our deal- 
ings with our western Indians, it is a lamentable fact that we 
still often resorted to force. 

Much of the discontent which existed among the Indians at this 
time, had been caused by the swindling methods employed by 
the Indian agents. On account of these and other troubles, 
the Modocs of southern Oregon went upon the warpath and after 
an expensive war, in which many lives were lost, this tribe was 
removed to Indian territory, where today many of their people 
are civilized and show remarkable ability in many different lines. 

Hardly had this trouble subsided when the Sioux Indians, who 
had been driven off their reservation in the Black Hills by gold 
seekers, suddenly returned and murdered the settlers, burned 
the homes, and destroyed the property. 

United States troops were sent against them and General Cus- 
ter, with about two hundred and fifty men, was surprised and 
massacred. 

The war lasted from June, 1876, to the winter of 1877, when 
the Indians went across into Canada. 

597. Great Fires. — The building of the great trans-continental 
railroads, with the numerous branch lines, caused such cities as 
Chicago and Boston to build up very quickly. Naturally the 



PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 339 

buildings which were erected under such conditions were of an 
unsubstantial nature, almost all of them being built of wood ; con- 
sequently, when in October, 1871, a conflagration broke out in 
Chicago in the face of the strong gale which was then blowing, 
it became impossible to manage it, and a section of nearly five 
square miles in the business district of this city was completely 
burned. A hundred thousand persons were thus made homeless 
and three hundred millions of dollars of property destroyed. 

In November, 1872, a fire broke out in Boston, and this city 
suffered a loss of over seventy-five millions of dollars. The fire 
burned over a district of nearly sixty acres of the business part 
of the city. 

The people of the entire nation responded to the calls for aid 
from the suffering people of these cities, and an amount exceed- 
ing millions of dollars was sent for their benefit. 

598. The Great Panic of 1873. — As so often recorded in his- 
tory, periods of great prosperity are generally followed by pe- 
riods of equal financial distress. After the building of the rail- 
roads and the many other improvements which took place at this 
time, people began to engage in speculation of all kinds. In their 
schemes of speculation the people entered into obligations which, 
when they became due, they could not meet. Money also became 
very scarce. 

The cause for this demand and scarcity of money may be item- 
ized as follows: (a) building and operating of many new rail- 
roads; (b) building of many large manufacturing establish- 
ments; (c) decrease of the national debt, which came about from 
the fact that under the high tariff laws a large amount of revenue 
was collected, consequently the government used this revenue in 
paying off the national debt and withdrew from circulation over 
one hundred millions of dollars of greenbacks; (d) the vast 
amount of imports which we received had far exceeded the 
amount of exports, consequently causing a heavy drain on the 
gold and silver of this country to foreign nations (in one year, 
1871, an amount equal to over sixty millions of dollars was 
taken from the United States to the European countries) ; (e) 
the great fires in Chicago and Boston, which caused the loss of 
hundreds of millions of dollars to property. On account of these 
and other influences, the banks and other financial concerns all 
over the country were forced to close their doors. The panic be- 
came general and not until 1880 was the country free from its 
effect. 



340 STUDENTS' HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

599. Demonetization of Silver. — Another event which had 
much to do with the financial condition of the country at this 
time was the demonetization of silver, i. e., the withdrawing from 
circulation of the use of silver as money, by the government. Pre- 
vious to this time there had been discovered in Nevada and other 
western states many silver mines which yielded an enormous 
amount of silver. The development of these mines threw upon 
the market much more silver than was needed for use as coin, 
therefore the market price began to fall rapidly, and as a result 
the United States, in conjunction with the European nations, 
demonetized it (1873). 




Courtesy of B. <£ O. Railroad 
OIL FIELDS OF WEST VIRGINIA 



This affected especially two classes of people; first, those who 
were in any way associated or dependent upon the silver mines, 
and second, the agricultural classes of the west, who claimed that 
on account of the withdrawing by the government of silver as 
money they were unable to make payment on the mortgages 
which were against their real estate. 



PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 341 

600. Discovery and Uses of Petroleum. — Just previous to the 
Civil War (August, 1859) there was near Titusville, Pennsyl- 
vania, discovered a strong flow of natural coal oil. A great terri- 
tory was found to be underlaid with this product and after the 
war, capital was invested in the development of these fields. 

During this administration great advancement was made along 
this line, the refined product being used in factories, for street 
lighting, and the illumination of homes. At the present time 
coal oil is not only used for fuel and illumination, but for loco- 
motion and many other purposes. 

601. Other Important Events. — Since Jackson's administra- 
tion the theory, "To the victors belong the spoils," had been fol- 
lowed in the appointment of Federal officers ; consequently, per- 
sons were very frequently appointed to fill the important offices 
who were absolutely unfit to hold such responsible positions. In 
1871 a civil service commission was appointed to look into this 
matter and to draw up rules and regulations for the appoint- 
ment of such officers. 

It was also during this administration (1876) that Colorado, 
the thirtieth state, was admitted to the Union. The admission of 
this state took place just one hundred years after the issuing of 
the Declaration of Independence. Therefore, Colorado is known 
as the Centennial state. 

602. Presidential Elections. — On account of the financial 
troubles, and the widespread graft schemes which had been so 
prevalent previous to and during Grant's administration, the 
Republican party had come somewhat into disrepute, and the 
election was very closely contested. The Republicans nominated 
on their ticket Governor R. B. Hayes, of Ohio, for president, and 
W. A. Wheeler, of New York, for vice president. The Democratic 
party placed on their ticket Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for 
president, and T. A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for vice president. 
The Prohibitionists and the Greenbackers also placed tickets in 
the field. 

603. The Electoral Commission. — The contest was very close 
between the Republicans and Democrats. In fact, the Democrats 
held that in certain southern states the vote had been incorrectly 
returned. After a long controversy, it was finally decided to leave 
the matter to an electoral commission, consisting of five supreme 
court justices, five senators, and five members of the house. This 
electoral commission decided in favor of Hayes, and declared that 



342 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

he had been elected by a vote of one-hundred eighty-five to one 
hundred eighty-four for Tilden. Of the men who were chosen on 
this electoral commission, eight were Republicans and seven 
Democrats. 






PERIOD OF EXPANSION — 1877 
REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1877-1861 




PRESIDENT RUTHER 
FORD B. HAYES 



604. The President's Southern Policy. 177 — President Hayes 
was a man of very liberal education. He 
was generous, conscientious, noble-minded,, 
and intensely interested in his official duties. 
He was convinced that the time had arrived 
when all military authority should cease in 
the south [Section 588]. Consequently he 
removed the last of the United States troops 
from the south, much to the delight and as- 
tonishment of the southern Democrats. In 
this affair he was bitterly opposed by the 
Republican party, but the justice and wis- 
dom of his action were soon apparent, for as 

soon as the soldiers were removed, the ' ' car- 
petbag" government and the Ku Klux Klan disappeared, and 
the civil affairs of the south passed into the hands of the white 
citizenship, who were left to work out the future of the south as 
best they might. [See Section 583.] 

605. The Bland-Allison Bill, 1878. 178 — It will be remembered 

that during Grant's administration 
[Section 598] congress demonetized sil- 
ver, but the western states, where the 
silver mines had been discovered and de- 
veloped, clamored for the coinage of sil- 
ver again. Consequently, Congressman 
Bland, of Missouri, introduced a bill 
which provided (a) that silver dollar's 
should be received in payment for all 
legal debts; (b) that the ratio of gold to 
silver should be sixteen to one; (c) that 
the government should coin all silver 
bullion brought to the mints, without 
cost to the holder. 




SENATOR WILLIAM B. 
ALLISON 



177 Burgess, Reconstruction, 295; Brice, ii, ch. xeii. 
3 78 Andrews, i, 264; Hart, Contemp's, iv, 531. 



344 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The bill passed the house, but the senate rejected the last pro- 
vision. Then Senator Allison, of Iowa, offered an amendment 
which provided that the secretary of the treasury should purchase 
not less than two million nor more than four million dollars' 
worth of silver each month and coin the same into dollars. Presi- 
dent Hayes vetoed the bill, but the congress passed it over his 
veto. 

606. Resumption of Specie Payments. — After the passage of 
this bill financial matters became more settled, and on January 
1, 1879, the United States government and the national banks 
resumed specie payments. 

607. Great Corporations, Strikes, etc. 179 — After the comple- 
tion of the great railroads and the many manufacturing estab- 
lishments, it required a great many men to keep these organiza- 
tions running. During the financial panic many of the manu- 
falturing establishments were forced to either close their doors 
or put their men on lower wages. The railroads also, on account 
of this depression in business, were forced to lower the salaries of 
their employees. The labor classes felt as though they were being 
unjustly treated, and demands were being made for an increase 
in wages. In 1877 the employees of the Baltimore & Ohio rail- 
road not only protested against the reduction of wages, but left 
their work on a strike. The center of the difficulty was at Pitts- 
burgh, where at one time nearly one hundred thousand men were 
without work. The greatest disorder prevailed, much property 
was destroyed, and many people were killed and wounded in the 
riots which took place. Finally the governor of Pennsylvania 
called out the state troops and order was restored. The strike 
was unsuccessful, and, on its account tbere were losses to both 
employers and employees amounting to millions of dollars. 

608. Presidential Campaign of 1880. — During this campaign 
four parties presented candidates to the people for the presidency 
of the United States. The Greenback party, which stood for a 
greater issue of paper money, nominated General James B. 
Weaver, of Iowa. The Prohibitionists presented General Neal 
Dow, and the Democratic party, whose platform called for ' ' hon- 
est money" and "tariff for revenue only," presented W. S. 
Hancock, of Pennsylvania. The Republican party in their plat- 
form demanded a radical reform in the civil service and the ab- 
solute suppression of polygamy, and presented as candidates 
General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of 

179 Appleton, Annual Cyclopedia, 1887. 



PERIOD OP EXPANSION 



345 



New York, who were elected by a majority of fifty-nine electoral 
votes over the Democratic nominees. 




Courtesy of Current Events 
THE NEW MANHATTAN SUSPENSION BRIDGE 
Recently built across East River 



REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1881-1885 



G09. Garfield and Arthur Presidents, 1881-1885. 180 — Hardly 
had the president entered upon the duties of his office when serious 
trouble arose regarding the disposal of the Federal offices. In 
New York, because the president refused to submit to their dic- 
tation, both senators resigned. Although the president had been 
elected upon a platform which demanded a radical reform in the 





JAMES A. GARFIELD 



CHESTER A. ARTHUR 



civil service, yet congress seemed reluctant to cooperate with the 
executive in his efforts to bring this about. On July 2d, the 
country was shocked by the news that the president had been shot 
by a disappointed office-seeker named Guiteau, as he was about to 
take the journey to celebrate the 4th of July in his old college 
town. He died at Long Branch, New Jersey, September 19, 1881. 

On being officially informed, Arthur assumed the duties of 
president of the United States, and served the rest of the term. 

610. Pendleton Civil Service Act. — The suffering and death 
of the president brought vividly before the people the urgent and 
immediate need of a revision of the civil service laws. In 18S3 
Senator Pendleton introduced a civil service bill which author- 
ized the president to appoint commissioners to decide by exami- 
nations whether candidates for office could qualify, the appoint- 

iso Andrews, i, 307; Redpatli, eh. xii. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 347 

ment to be made from this list. The bill became a law, and 
although at first it only applied to a few positions, since it has 
been extended until it applies to nearly all important appointive 
positions under the government. 

611. Polygamy and Its Suppression. — In 1882 a bill was pre- 
sented to congress which prohibited plural marriages, which up 
until this time had been practised by the Mormons in Utah. The 
bill became a law, and in 1890 the Mormon church announced 
that it would abide by the law, and that it had abandoned the 
practice of polygamy. 

Other Important Legislation. — During this administration let- 
ter postage was reduced from three to two cents. Later, in 1885. 
it was still reduced by allowing one ounce instead of one-half 
ounce to go through the mails for two cents. 

It was also during this administration the Chinese were pro- 
hibited from coming into the United States. The period of this 
prohibition was for ten years. 

612. The Brooklyn Bridge. 1S1 — It was also during this ad- 
ministration (1883) that the steel suspension bridge across East 
River, connecting the city of New York with Brooklyn, was com- 
pleted. The bridge was designed by a Prussian engineer by the 
name of John A. Roebling, and it has proven so successful that 
the plan has been followed quite extensively since in the building 
of bridges which must cross deep waterways. 

613. The Presidential Election of 1884. — On account of the 
financial conditions, the tariff question, which had not been before 
the people since the Civil War [note 170], became the main issue 
in the campaign. 182 

The Republicans chose James G. Blaine, of Maine, as their 

isi The total length of the bridge is 5,990 feet, or more than one and 
one-eighth miles. The distance between the two great stone piers is 1,600 
feet. These piers, rising 270 feet above high water, rest on caissons sunk 
upon the solid bedrock. The tops of the piers carry four steel-wire cables 
weighing 3,600 tons; and from these hang 2,172 small cables, which support 
the iron and steel bridge at a height of 135 feet, allowing the tallest ships 
to pass beneath. The width is 85 feet. Through the middle runs a road 
for foot passengers; on each side of this is the pair of tracks for the cable 
ears which carry passengers back and forth all day and night; outside of the 
tracks are two driveways for teams moving in opposite directions. These 
five parallel roads are entirely separate, and the central footway is some- 
what higher than the others, affording a vast panoramic view of the two 
cities and beyond. The cost of this world's wonder was $15,000,000. The 
work was begun in 1870 and finished in 1883. — Fiske, School History of 
United Staies. 

182 Taussig's Tariff History. 



348 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

candidate for president and John A. Logan, of Illinois, for vice 
president. The Democrats selected as their candidates, Grover 
Cleveland, of New York, for president, and Thomas A. Hendricks, 
of Indiana, for vice president. The contest was very close, but 
on counting the electoral votes it was decided that Cleveland and 
Hendricks had received the largest number of votes, and they 
were declared elected. 




DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1885-1889 

614. Cleveland and the Spoils System. — In the matter of the 
distribution of government positions 
President Cleveland used the greatest 
discretion, for he declared vacancies on- 
ly in such offices where there was just 
cause on account of inability, and ap- 
pointed only such of his friends to fill 
the vacancies who were known to be es- 
pecially fitted for the position to which 
they were appointed. 

615. Anti-Contract Law. — The for- 
eign population of tins country is very 
grover Cleveland large, and in almost every respect, where 

these people have come here of their own 
accord, they have made our very best citizens. However, a peculiar 
phase of the emigrant question presented itself at this time. The 
large corporations found that they could import labor cheaper 
than they could procure it at home. Consequently, they sent their 
agents to foreign countries, where they procured large numbers of 
laborers who, under contract for very small wages, were shipped 
to this country and given employment which should have been 
given to our citizen laborers. This alone would not have been so 
bad, but the class of laborers which was brought to this country 
was often of the lowest type. Among them were included the 
criminals, the destitute, the poor, the beggars, and the anarchistic 
element, nearly all of whom expected to return to their own coun- 
try when they had hoarded sufficient wealth. They were not a 
class of people who would become a part of the citizenship of this 
country. Therefore, the importation of these people into this 
country was not only an injustice to the laboring class, but an 
absolute detriment to the government, and in 1885 congress passed 
a law which forbade the importation of contract labor into the 
United States. 

616. Labor Organizations. — The manufacturing industries 
had now grown to such an extent, that entire localities were en- 
gaged in such industries. In these large manufacturing centers 



350 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

vast numbers o£ laboring people were of necessity forced to live. 
These people in order to protect themselves against unjust de- 
mands of their employers, and to be the better prepared to pro- 
mote their own interests, formed themselves into local organiza- 
tions, which later grew into what is now known as the American 
Federation of Labor. Through the agency of these organizations 
the laboring classes receive the benefit of united effort and are 
able to present their petitions and demands in the same manner 
as an individual, a corporation, or any other business organiza- 
tion. 

617. Labor Disturbances, Strikes, etc. 183 — On account of the 
financial difficulties of 1873, the railroads and other large corpo- 
rations declared that it was necessary for them to discharge part 
of their help and reduce the wages of the remaining force. This 
led to discontent among the laboring classes, who in return de- 
manded a raise in wages and shorter hours. These differences led 
to numerous strikes and riots (1886, 1892, 1900, 1902), during 
which time much property was destroyed and great suffering en- 
dured. 

618. Presidential Succession Law. 184 — The sudden demise of 
both President Garfield and Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks 
called the attention of congress to the necessity of passing a law 
which would provide for the succession to the office of president 
in case both president and vice president could not serve. Such 
a law was passed (1886), providing that the secretary of state, 

183 The formation of what is now the American Federation of Labor 
originated in a meeting held in Terre Haute, Indiana, on August 2 and 3, 
1881. This meeting resulted in the issuance of a call for a convention at 
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which opened November 15, 1881. 

See also Andrews, ii, 114; Hart's Contemp's, iv, 518; History of Labor 
Legislation in Iowa, by E. H. Downey, published by The State Historical 
Society ; Unionism and Labor Problems, by Commons. 

184 The presidential succession is fixed by chapter iv of the acts of the 
forty-ninth congress, first session. In ease of the removal, death, resignation, 
or inability of both the president and vice president, then the secretary of 
state shall act as president until the disability of the president or vice presi- 
dent is removed or a president is elected. If there be no secretary of state, 
then the secretary of the treasury will act; and the remainder of the order 
of succession is as follows: The secretary of war, attorney-general, post- 
master-general, secretary of the navy, and secretary of the interior. The 
acting president must, upon taking office, convene congress, if not at the time 
in session, in extraordinary session, giving twenty days' notice. This act 
applies only to such cabinet officers as shall have been appointed by the 
advice and consent of the senate, and are eligible under the constitution to 
the presidency. 

See also Stanwood, ch. xxviii. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



351 



followed by the other members of the cabinet in order of their 
creation, shall act as president until the disability is removed. 

619. Inter-State Commerce Law. — Another very important 
law at this time (1887) passed by congress is known as the inter- 
state commerce law. The purpose of this law is to regulate in an 
equitable manner all matters pertaining to freight and passenger 
rates, transfer privileges, and all other matters pertaining to 
inter-state traffic. 

In order that the purposes of this law might be realized, con- 
gress created an inter-state commerce commission, whose powers 
have from time to time been extended, until at the present time 
its duties are considered of vast importance. 




THE STATUE OP LIBERTY 



620. The Statue of Liberty. — During this administration an 
event of international importance took place, in the presenting, 
by the people of France to the United States, the statue of 
" Liberty Enlightening the World." Tbe monument was de- 
signed by a Frenchman, Frederic Auguste Bartholde, and is situ- 



352 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ated on Bedloe's Island in New York harbor, and celebrates the 
one hundredth (1776-1876) anniversary of American indepen- 
dence. It is indicative of the cordial relations which have always 
existed between the republic of France and the United States, 
and as a gift is expressive of that nation's confidence in this 
government. 

621. The Surplus Revenue.— After the panic of 1873 the 
country passed into an era of great prosperity, during which much 
wealth was accumulated at home. This condition created a de- 
mand for foreign products to such an extent that the duties and 
revenues collected under the high tariff law [Section 598] brought 
into the treasury much more money than was needed for the run- 
ning expenses of the government. In fact, in 1885, there was 
stored away in the government vaults nearly four hundred and 
fifty millions of surplus. On account of this surplus being in the 
government vaults there was a lack of currency needed for busi- 
ness transactions. Furthermore, the taxes were high, although 
this money was lying idle in the treasury vaults. 

A private individual having at his command money which was 
bringing no returns would immediately pay his obligations, 
but it was a far different proposition with the government, for its 
debts were largely in the shape of bonds issued for long periods 
of time, which were held as investments by people who, on account 
of the general prosperity of the government, would not sell them 
unless they received much more than the face value. Besides this, 
if the government bonds were all called in and cancelled, it would 
necessarily decrease the issue of the national bank currency, since 
these bonds were held as security on the notes issued by such 
banks. It therefore seemed that in order to withdraw this sur- 
plus from the treasury, it would be necessary to reduce the tariff. 

622. Cleveland's Tariff Reform and the Mills Bill. 185 — Presi- 
dent Cleveland now (1887) issued his famous "Tariff reform mes- 
sage," which definitely committed his party to that policy. In 
order that the surplus in the treasury might be reduced, the 
president recommended that a tariff with very low rates be 
passed. In this way it was hoped that the surplus would be with- 
drawn from the vaults in order to meet the necessary expenses 
of the government. At this juncture a bill known as the "Mills 
bill." reducing the duties on imports, was passed by the Demo- 
cratic house, but failed to pass the Republican senate. 

623. The Campaign of 1888. — During the time this bill was 

185 Andrews, ii, 114; Hart's Contemps, iv, 518. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 353 

before congress the presidential campaign was being waged. On 
account of the extreme views of the president in regard to this 
question, the tariff question became the main issue of the cam- 
paign. 

The Democrats nominated as their candidates Grover Cleve- 
land and Allen G-. Thurman. The Republicans named Benjamin 
Harrison, of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of New York. Harri- 
son and Morton received the largest number of electoral votes 
and were elected, although Cleveland and Thurman received the 
majority of the popular vote. 



REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1889-1893 




BENJAMIN HARRISON 



624. The McKinley Tariff. 180 — As previously stated, the presi- 
dential campaign had been fought out 
on the tariff issue and the Republicans 
had been victorious, not only with their 
presidential candidate, but also in both 
houses; consequently, in the spring of 
1890, William McKinley, of Ohio, who 
was chairman of the committee on ways 
and means, introduced a tariff measure 
which very materially increased the 
duties on food stuffs, carpets, clothing, 
tools, coal, wood, tinware, linen, thread, 
and in fact, almost all articles needed in 
everyday life. At the same time this 
tariff gave great prominence to reciprocity, inasmuch as it pro- 
vided that certain duties which either this or previous tariffs had 
wholly or partially abolished, such as those on tea, coffee, sugar, 
molasses, and hides, might be revived by the president against 
any nation which should impose unfair duties upon any agricul- 
tural products of the United States. The occasion for making 
use of this provision was for the president himself to determine. 
This led in the course of time to treaties of reciprocity with 
Spain and Great Britain (for their possessions in the West 
Indies), also with Germany and Austria-Hungary, with Brazil, 
and several Spanish-American republics. 

G25. The friends of the "Mills bill" [Section 6211 had hoped 
to reduce the amount of revenue by reducing the tariff rates, but 
the friends of the McKinley bill hoped to bring about the same 
result by exactly an opposite course. They hoped to reduce the 
revenue by making the rates so high as to check or monopolize 
importation. In fact, the rates were so high that it was absolute- 
ly impossible to import goods into this country and place them 
on the market, for the reason that the same goods could be pro- 

186 McMasters's History of the United States; Fiske's School History of 
the United States; Caldwell's American History, 219; Taussig's Tariff 
History , ch. v. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 355 

duced in this country and placed on the market and sold much 
cheaper than the foreign product. The McKinley bill, therefore, 
was not only a protective, but in many respects a prohibitive 
tariff also [Section 312]. 

As soon as the bill became a law, the surplus in the United 
States treasury began to diminish rapidly. At the beginning of 
1893 the gold reserve had reached so low a point that it was feared 
the treasury might soon suspend gold payments, A disastrous 
commercial depression, attributed chiefly to the above causes, 
began early in this year. 

626. The Sherman Silver Act of 1890. 1S7 — In order to insure 
the passage of the McKinley bill in the senate, it became neces- 
sary for the Republican senators from eastern states to compro- 
mise with the Republican senators from the western states. 
Nearly one-third of the Republican strength of the senate came 
from the states west of the Mississippi, and these states were de- 
voted mainly to farming and mining. These senators, and 
especially those who were interested in silver mining, were not 
necessarily interested in high protection, for they believed that 
silver was entitled to as much protection as wood and iron. They 
realized that this could not be done by tariff legislation, but they 
argued that the government might purchase enough of this metal 
to keep the market prices from declining. By the Bland-Allison act 
[Section 605]. the government had purchased silver at the rate 
of about two millions of dollars per month, but there had been 
such a great production of the metal, that it still continued to 
decrease in price. The senators from the western states argued 
that the government should coin all the silver brought to the 
mints. The senators from the east would not agree to this, but 
in order to secure the vote of the west in favor of the McKinley 
bill, it became necessary for them to compromise matters. This 
was done by the passage of the "Sherman Silver Purchase Act." 
By this bill the government was pledged to buy four and one-half 
million ounces of silver each month, and issue certificates to the 
full amount of the silver purchased. After the bill became a law, 
the silver began to collect in the vaults, and, contrary to the 
expectations of many, still continued to decline in value. 

627. Congressional Election and the Admission of States. — 
As the time for the congressional election arrived, the Republi- 
cans realized that it was doubtful whether or not they would have 
a majority in the next session. So dubious was the outcome that 

187 White, eh. viii ; Taussig's Silver Situation. 



356 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the party tried to revive the policy of securing the election in the 
south by the presence of Federal forces, knowing that if the negro 
vote could be secured, they would doubtless be victorious in that 
section. This plan failing, they next tried to insure the election 
in their favor, by admitting several states as follows : North 
Dakota and South Dakota (1889), Montana (1889), Washington 
(1889), Idaho (1890), and Wyoming (1890) , 188 This brought 
forth great criticism, inasmuch as several of the states admitted 
had a population which was far below the federal ratio of repre- 
sentation, for previous to this time it had not been the custom to 
admit a state when this condition existed. 

All efforts failed, however, for when the election returns were 
made known it was found that the Democrats had a majority in 
the house by a vote of two hundred and thirty-five to the Republi- 
cans ' eighty-eight. In the senate, however, the Republicans had 
a majority of six. Owing to this fact, the Democrats were un- 
able to repeal the McKinley bill, which in many respects had 
proven unsatisfactory. 

628. Foreign Affairs. — Mr. Blaine, as secretary of state, on 
account of his firm and energetic execution of affairs pertaining 
to his office, did very much during this administration in bring- 
ing to the attention of foreign nations the fact that the United 
States in international affairs was one of the foremost nations of 
the world. 

For some time there had been a dispute between Germany, 
Great Britain, and the United States regarding their rights in 
the Samoan Islands. [Plate No. 10.] As these islands were 
possessed of good harbors, and as they were in the direct line of 
the trade routes, these nations became desirous of controlling 
them. These troubles became exceedingly serious when Prince 
Bismarck, the German chancellor, caused the flag of that nation 
to be raised over Apia, the chief town of the islands. The native 
king was immediately deposed and the German emperor declared 
war on all the inhabitants who should not declare their allegiance 
to the empire of Germany. The United States acted promptly, 
and vessels were hurried to this place with much speed. On 
March 16, 1889, the American and German ships prepared for 
action, when a terrific typhoon caused such destruction among 
the ships of both nations that they were forced to put in for re- 
pairs. Fortunately, soon after, at a conference at Berlin, it was 
agreed that the neutrality of these islands should be recognized 

188 Wister 's The Virginian. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 357 

between Germany, England, and the United States, and that 
they should recognize and protect the native king. Trouble con- 
tinued to exist, however, between the three nations regarding the 
management of affairs in the islands until 1899 (during McKin- 
ley's administration), when the dispute was finally settled by 
dividing the islands between Germany and the United States, this 
nation being given the Tutuila group, including the excellent 
harbor of Pago Pago. 

Another matter of international importance occurred at New 
Orleans, when, in the spring of 1891, several Italians who were 
accused of murdering some of their countrymen, were convicted 
of perjury. While working on this ease the police discovered 
the existence of the "Mafia," a secret order, whose members were 
bound by oath to obey the commands of the order, and whose 
purpose was to shield the crimes committed by its members. 
While pursuing the investigation the chief of police was shot and 
killed, and on this account nine of the members of this 
order were arrested, but at the trial were acquitted. The enraged 
citizens, charging that the jury had been intimidated by the 
"Mafia," thereupon took the law into their own hands, and in a 
riot which followed, murdered all of the accused men. Three of 
the victims thus dealt with were citizens of Italy, and this nation, 
through its minister at Washington, at once demanded an indem- 
nity for the support, of the families of the victims. Secretary 
Blaine tried to explain that under our representative form of gov- 
ernment, this was a matter which did not concern the national 
government, but the state of Louisiana, whereupon the Italian 
minister, misconstruing this statement, at once severed his official 
relations with the United States, and a serious conflict seemed im- 
minent. However, after much explanation and patience on the 
side of our government, a settlement was finally reached by which 
the United States paid to the Italian government twenty-five 
thousand dollars for distribution among the relatives of the mur- 
dered men. 

629. Trouble with Chile. — At about this same time there had 
broken out in Chile a revolution and the revolutionists had been 
successful to such an extent that they had overthrown the gov- 
ernment. 

The United States in her official capacity saw fit, not only to 
offer an asylum to the leaders of the defeated faction, but she 
had captured and detained a Chilean vessel that was carrying 
munitions of war to the revolutionists. This enraged the revolu- 



358 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



tionists to such an extent, that in the autumn of 1891 some sailors 
from the United States ship Baltimore were attacked while on the 
streets of Valparaiso (Chile) , two being killed and several wound- 
ed. It seemed that it would he impossible to avoid war, as Chile 
refused to offer either an apology or reparation. xVgain, how- 
ever, through the exercise of wisdom and patience on the part of 
the secretary of state (James G. Blaine), the difficulty was finally 
adjusted. 






A MODERN BATTLESHIP 
Compare this ship with those illustrated under Section 529 and Section 372 

630. A Great Navy. — Since the Civil War very little atten- 
tion had been given to our navy. In fact, eleven other nations of 
the earth had navies which were far superior to ours, It now be- 
came apparent, if we were to take such a leading place in inter- 
national affairs as we had in the incidents relating to Samoa 
[Section 627], the Italian citizens at New Orleans, and to Chile 
[Section 629], we must necessarily be the possessor of a strong 
and efficient navy. With this end in view, congress appropriated 
forty millions of dollars for the building of new warships. Sub- 
sequent appropriations have been made until at the present time 
the United States has one of the strongest, best equipped, and 
most efficient navies in the world. 

631. Campaign of 1892. — In this campaign a new political 
party, known as the Peoples party, presented candidates for 
president and vice president. In their platform they asked for 
the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of 
sixteen to one, an income tax, and the government ownership of 
railroads and telegraph lines. This party placed in nomination 
for president, General James B. Weaver, of Iowa, and for vice 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 359 

president, James G. Field, of Virginia. The Republicans, who 
stood for the McKinley bill, nominated for president, Benjamin 
Harrison, and for vice president, Whitelaw Reid, of New York. 
The Democrats, who promised to repeal the McKinley tariff, 
nominated for president, Grover Cleveland, and Adlai E. Steven- 
son, of Illinois, for vice president. The Democrats won a com- 
plete victory, inasmuch as they elected not only their candidates 
for president and vice president, but gained complete possession 
of both branches of congress. 



DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1893-1897 



632. Grant's Tomb. — In the fore part of Cleveland's first 

administration (July 23, 1893), 
General Grant passed away. Af- 
ter his death a subscription was 
raised for the building of a state- 
ly monument on the banks of the 
Hudson in Riverside Drive, New 
York. The unveiling of the monu- 
ment took place on April 27, 1897. 
Henry Ward Beecher, in speak- 
ing of Grant said, that as "A man 
he was without vices, with an ab- 
solute hatred of lies and an in- 
eradicable love of truth, of a per- 
fect loyalty to friendship, neither 
envious of others, nor selfish of 
himself. "With a zeal for the pub- 
lic good unfeigned, he has left to 
memory only such weaknesses as 
connect him with humanity, and 
such virtues as will rank him 
among heroes." 

633. The Panic of 1893 and the Repeal of the Sherman Act- 
When Cleveland entered upon the duties of his office as president 
for the second time, he found the financial affairs of the country 
in a bad condition. 

In accordance with the Sherman act [Section 626], the govern- 
ment had continued to buy silver bullion, issuing in payment 
treasury notes or silver certificates. It had always been the custom 
of the government to keep in the vaults at Washington at least 
$100,000,000 in gold with which to redeem such of the $346,000,- 
000 of "greenbacks" as were still in circulation; but under 
the Sherman act the " greenbacks " and silver certificates in circu- 
lation had accumulated until the grand total was $500,000,000. 
Furthermore, under the McKinley act, the customs duties had 
fallen off, and while it had been the custom to receive in payment 
over eighty per cent of the duties in gold, at this time (1893) 




GENERAL GRANT'S TOMB 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 361 

only about twenty per cent of the duties were paid in gold. Con- 
sequently the surplus in the United States treasury had rapidly 
diminished until at the beginning of 1893 the gold reserve had 
reached so low a point that it was feared the treasury might soon 
suspend gold payments. A disastrous financial panic [Section 625] 
began early in 1893, and on this account President Cleveland 
summoned an extra session of congress to deal with the silver 
question. After being in session nearly all summer, congress 
finally repealed that part of the Sherman act known as the "pur- 
chasing clause." This left the government free to purchase or 
not purchase silver as it saw fit. Contrary to the views of those 
who had urged the repeal of the Sherman act, the panic did not 
end, but continued throughout the administration. 

634. The Wilson-Gorman Bill. 189 — Congress at the next regu- 
lar session, true to its campaign promises, gave its attention to 
the revision of the McKinley law. Congressman Wm. L. Wilson, 
of West Virginia, introduced a bill which provided for the re- 
moval of duties on such materials as sugar, wool, iron, coal, and 
lumber. The bill immediately passed the lower house, but when 
it reached the senate, through the influence of Senator Gorman, 
it was amended to such an extent that the purposes of the original 
bill were made impossible, for it retained the principle of pro- 
tection, although it reduced the duties upon many articles, and in 
particular placed wool upon the free list, The bill became a law 
without the president's signature. 

635. The Venezuelan Question and International Arbitra- 
tion. — During this administration it again became necessary for 
this government to put in force the principles as embodied in the 
"Monroe Doctrine" [Section 403]. 

For many years there had been a dispute between Great Brit- 
ain and Venezuela regarding the boundary line between Vene- 
zuela and British Guiana. Gold having been discovered in the 
district in controversy, the dispute became serious, for although 
Venezuela wished to submit the matter to arbitration, Great 
Britain (the stronger nation) refused. 

President Cleveland, on being informed of this fact, sent to 
congress a message in which he recommended the immediate ap- 
pointment of a commission to determine and report upon the true 
boundary line. Both branches of congress, regardless of party, 
rallied to the support of the president and the bill was passed, 
the committee appointed, and Great Britain notified that, if neces- 

189 Andrews, ii, 303 ; Stanwood, 523. 



362 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

sary, this government would take the necessary action to enforce 
the "Monroe Doctrine" should that nation try to exercise 
control over any of the territory in dispute, other than that to 
which she was lawfully entitled. After some delay, Great Britain 
finally agreed to settle the controversy by arbitration. 

636. Presidential Campaign of 1896. — On account of the 
"hard times" the money question became the principal issue of 
the campaign. The Democrats nominated William Jennings 
Bryan, of Nebraska, for president, and in their platform declared 
in favor of the free coinage of silver at the ratio of sixteen to 
one. The Republicans nominated William McKinley, of Ohio, for 
president, and in their platform declared in favor of protection 
and reciprocity, and against the free coinage of silver except by 
international agreement. 

The republican candidate was elected by a vote of 271 to 176 
for the Democratic candidate. 




REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1897-1905 

637. The Monetary Commission and the Gold Standard.- 

Soon after entering on the duties of his of- 
fice, in conformity with the principles of 
the Republican election platform, President 
McKinley appointed a monetary commis- 
sion, consisting of three members, whose 
duty it was to confer with the leading 
commercial nations, and arrange, if pos- 
sible, for an international agreement for the sf\'W^W ■&*' 
coinage of both gold and silver. The com- 
mission, however, was unable to make any^ 
arrangements by which the bimetallic stan- 
dard could be generally recognized, inas- william Mckinley 
much as England refused to give the proposition any considera- 
tion, and India had already suspended the coinage of silver. 

Receiving no encouragement from other nations, congress be- 
lieved it would be unwise to pass a law admitting of the free 
coinage of both silver and gold, as this country would then be- 
come the dumping ground for the silver of the world. Conse- 
quently, in March, 1900, the gold standard act, making the gold 
dollar the standard of value, was passed by congress. 

638. The Dingley Tariff. — Not only were the Republicans 
pledged to investigate the question of bimetallism, but also as 
sacred were their pledges to a revision of the tariff laws. Conse- 
quently the president called congress in extra session in March, 
1897. with special instructions to consider the revision of the 
tariff. 

Congressman Dingley, of Maine, introduced a bill which was 
not only protective [Section 312], but in many respects prohibi- 
tive [Section 312], inasmuch as many of the duties were even 
higher than they had been under the McKinley bill [Section 624]. 
One peculiar feature of the bill was that in many cases the "spe- 
cific" duty was substituted for the "ad valorem," which tended 
very much to increase the revenue. 

In contradistinction to the Wilson-Gorman law, a duty was 
levied on raw wool [Section 634]. and on many woven fabrics in- 
cluding woolens and silks. 



364 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

This bill also forbade the forming of combinations which would 
in any way hinder commercial transactions in foreign produc- 
tions which were shipped into this country. 

639. The United States and Spain.— In the contest for life, 
liberty, and civil equality, no nation ever had greater opportuni- 
ties than has Spain. Just previous to the discovery of America 
by Columbus, the Spanish nation had by a process of consolida- 
tion, formed the small Spanish kingdoms into one strong nation. 
Then the vast quantities of gold from her possession in the New 
World began to pour into her coffers. Then it was that Spain 
entered upon her conquest of European territory, which lasted 
until the Spanish dominion included not only the peninsula of 
Spain but Sicily, Sardinia, parts of Italy, the territory tributary 
to the Rhine, most of the western hemisphere, and the islands of 
the Pacific and Indian oceans. 

With all these advantages it seems that the Spain of today 
should be one of the strongest nations of the world, but avarice, 
illiberality, covetousness, intoleration, uncharitableness, duplicity, 
cruelty, her antagonism to the education of the masses, and her 
absolute refusal to listen to the dictates of reason, sense, justice, 
civilization, and righteousness, has characterized her every action, 
until either by revolution, or by interference of other and more 
progressive nations, these numerous advantages have been taken 
from her. 

640. Cuban Affairs. 190 — In Cuba, as in her other possessions, 
Spain insisted on the cruel and unjust execution of governmental 
affairs. Bloodshed and oppression had been the history of her 
centralized and inefficient administration until 1895. when the 
inhabitants revolted against these injustices. Under the leader- 
ship of such patriots as Gomez, Garcia, the two Maceos, and others, 
it was impossible for the Spaniards to subdue the rebellion. 

641. The Reconcentrados. — Realizing that it would be impos- 
sible for them to subdue the Cubans by civilized warfare, General 
Weyler ordered that not only all buildings and crops be de- 
stroyed, but the non-combatants, including the old men and 
women and children, be driven from their homes within great 
pens, where on account of the unsanitary conditions and lack of 
food and clothing, thousands and thousands died. 

642. The Sinking of the Maine. — These conditions aroused 
universal sympathy in the United States, and popular sentiment 
insisted that this nation should protect the Cubans against such 

1 90 Hart's Contemps, iv. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



365 




GENERAL WEYLER 



outrages. Popular sentiment declared that if necessary the United 
States should, by force, demand instant 
relief to these unfortunates, or the imme- 
diate removal of the Spanish forces from 
the island. 

However, it had always been the policy 
of this nation never to interfere in foreign 
affairs, but even with this principle of our 
previous governmental policy still in con- 
sideration, yet events now took such a seri- 
ous turn that it became absolutely necessary 
for the government to take some action, 
for during the evening of February 15, 

1898, the battleship Maine, while on a friendly visit to Havana, 

was destroyed by an explosion and two hundred and sixty-six 

of her crew perished. 

643. The Report of the Board of Naval Experts. — The peo- 
ple of the United States now became thoroughly aroused. Con- 
gress, without a dissenting vote, appropriated fifty millions of 
dollars for the national defense, for, although we had been for 
some time building a navy [Section 630], yet we were in need of 
more ships and stronger coast fortifications. An investigating 
board of naval experts was appointed who, after careful examina- 
tion, gave out information which led to the belief that the vessel 
had been destroyed by a submarine mine. 

644. War Declared. — Upon receiving this information, Presi- 
dent McKinley, after due deliberation, during which time Spain 
was requested to withdraw from Cuba, sent to congress a message 
in which he declared that it was the duty of the United States, 
in behalf of humanity, to interfere in the war between Spain and 
Cuba. 

On April 19, 1898 (just one hundred and twenty-three years 
after the battle of Lexington), war was formally declared in be- 
half of the freedom of the oppressed Cubans. 

645. Battle of Manila. — [Plate X.] Commodore George 
Dewey, who had seen service with Farragut at the battle of New 
Orleans [Section 524], was at this time in command of the Asia- 
tie squadron, which was in the Chinese waters. Receiving orders 
to capture or destroy the Spanish Pacific fleet, he at once set sail 
in search of the enemy. On May 1st, he entered Manila Bay, where 
the Spanish fleet, supported by a fortified port, was at anchorage. 
Although the Spaniards had twice as many vessels, and were sup- 



366 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ported by the land batteries, yet in less than two hours three of 
her largest vessels were sunk, and the rest set on fire. After a 
short rest, the attack was renewed, and in a short time every gun 
in the Spanish fleet and forts was silenced. In a short time Gen- 
eral Merritt arrived with land forces, and after a combined at- 
tack received the surrender of the city. The Americans imme- 
diately took possession not only of Manila but of the Philippine 
Islands. 

646. Admiral Cervera Enters Santiago Harbor. — Shortly be- 
fore the battle of Manila Admiral Cervera sailed from the Cape 
Verde Islands. As our coast was unprotected, it was feared that 
the Spanish fleet might bombard our principal Atlantic coast 
cities. This fear was dispelled, however, in the latter part of 
May, when it was learned that the Spanish fleet was in the harbor 
of Santiago, on the southern coast of Cuba. At this place it was 
blockaded by the American squadron under the command of Ad- 
miral Sampson. 

647. Hobson and the Merrimac. — The entrance from the 
ocean to the harbor of Santiago is through a narrow winding 
channel between high fortified hills. 

Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson believed that this channel 
might be closed by the sinking of the large collier "Merrimac" 
in the narrow passage, and that it would be impossible for the 
Spanish vessels to escape. In the early morning of June 3d, Hob- 
son with seven men started with the Merrimac on their mission, 
but a shell from the Spanish batteries tore away the rudder and 
the experiment was only partially successful, inasmuch as the 
vessel sank lengthwise instead of across the channel. Hobson and 
Iris brave men were made prisoners of war by the Spanish, but 
later were exchanged. 

648. Cervera 's Fleet Destroyed, and the Surrender of San- 
tiago. 191 — On learning that the Spanish fleet was at Santiago, 
General Miles ordered General Shafter, with a force of seventeen 
thousand men, to approach Santiago by land and assist the fleet 
in the capture of the Spanish fleet and the city of Santiago. The 
force landed a little to the east of Santiago and at once made ar- 

i9i After the destruction of the Maine in the harbor of Havana, the Ore- 
gon, then on the Pacific coast, was ordered to join Admiral Sampson. In 
order to do this it was necessary for her to sail clear around Cape Horn, a 
distance of fourteen thousand miles, which she did in sixty-six days, arriving 
in time to take part in the battle of Santiago. The advantage of an ocean 
to ocean passage through Panama, controlled by the United States, was made 
apparent by this event. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



367 



rangements to bombard the city. 

while 




COMMODORE WINFIELD S. 
SCHLEY 






On the morning of July 3d, 
Admiral Sampson with his 
flagship, the New York, was away 
consulting with General Shafter, the 
Spanish fleet was discovered trying 
to make its escape out of the harbor. 
Immediately Commodore Schley, 
who had charge of the American 
fleet during Admiral Sampson's ab- 
sence, ordered an attack, and so 
well did our sailors do their work 
that in a few hours every Spanish 
vessel was either captured, set on 
fire, or sunk. 

After some hard fighting (July 
15th) by the land forces, under the 
immediate command of Colonel 
Theodore Roosevelt, General Joseph 
"Wheeler, and others, the entire district of 
Santiago was surren- 
dered. 

General Miles had al- 
ready proceeded to 
Porto Rico and later in 
the month (July 25th) 
he raised the United 
States flag over that 
island. 

649. The Treaty of 
Peace. — [Plate 10.] 
The capture of Santia- 
go and the destruction 
of Cervera's fleet practically closed the war. Soon after a treaty 
was signed in Paris whereby Spain relinquished all title and 
sovereignty in Cuba and ceded to the United States the Philip- 
pines, Porto Rico, and other Spanish possessions in the West 
Indies (excepting Cuba) , together with the island of Guam in the 
Ladrones. Spain furthermore agreed to release all prisoners 
held for political offenses in Cuba and the Philippines, and fur- 
thermore agreed to guarantee religious freedom in the Caroline 
islands, assuring the rights of American missionaries there. 

The United States agreed to send the Spanish troops who were 
in Cuba and the Philippines, back to Spain, and to pay $20,000,- 





GENERAL NELSON 
MILES 



GENERAL 
WHEELER 



JOE 



368 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

000 for the improvements Spain had made in the Philippines. 
She also agreed to inaugurate in the Philippines a generous com- 
mercial policy toward Spain. 

650. Regulation of Affairs in Cuba. — By the terms of the 
treaty the United States assumed the sovereignty of Cuba only 
to a time when the inhabitants of the island might be able 
to assume the obligations of self-government. Accordingly, about 
three years after the signing of the treaty of peace, under the 
directions of the United States authorities, the local government 
of the island was organized and turned over to the inhabitants. 
Since that time Cuba has been making notable progress in every 
respect. 

651. Hawaii. 192 — [Plate 10.] For many years American citi- 
zens had been emigrating to the Hawaiian Islands where they had 
become interested in the great sugar plantations. Becoming dis- 
satisfied with the government of the islands, these people (1893) 
revolted against the home government and deposed the queen. 
Soon after this, the islands were placed under the protectorate 
of the United States, and negotiations were at once opened for 
their annexation. However, Mr. Cleveland, who was at this time 
president, after making an investigation, disapproved of this 
policy, and the islands became an independent republic. How- 
ever, during the Spanish-American War, the necessity of having 
control of the islands was very apparent, and in 1898 they were 
annexed to the United States, and two years later organized into 
a territory under the name of Hawaii. 

652. The Hague Peace Conference.— Just after our war with 
Spain (May, 1899), at the suggestion of Czar Nicholas of Rus- 
sia, commissioners from twenty-six different nations met at The 
Hague and formed a "Court of Arbitration" to which perplex- 
ing controversies, which might otherwise lead to war, might be 
submitted. Subsequently this tribunal has been recognized by 
several important nations, and several questions of great import- 
ance have been submitted and adjusted satisfactorily to the 
nations concerned. 

653. The Boxer Uprising and the Open Door. — Early in the 
spring of 1900, an association known as the "Boxers," inaugu- 
rated a reign of terror in and about the city of Peking, Cliina. 
The insurrection was directed against all foreigners, including 
the missionaries. Many people, including the German minister, 
were murdered in cold blood. 



192 Hart's Contemps, 439; Larned's Beady Reference, vi. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



369 



Five thousand of our troops, which were at this time stationed 
in the Philippines, were rushed to the scene of the attack, and 
did what they could to protect the besieged foreigners. Later, 
this army was reinforced by troops from Great Britain, France, 
Germany, Japan, and Italy, and under the command of Count 
Von Waldersee this great international army soon relieved the 
distressed foreigners and captured the capital city of the Chinese 
empire. 

In the settlement Avith China the nations followed the advice 
of the United States, inasmuch as the territory of the empire was 
left intact. However, the Chinese were forced to indemnify each 
government for such losses as it or its citizens had sustained, 
punish the instigators of the revolt, and open certain ports to the 
commerce of all nations. 




CULTIVATING CORN IN IOWA 



654. The Presidential Election of 1900. — In this campaign 
the Democrats declared against "territorial expansion" and those 
who were in favor of the free coinage of silver nominated for their 
standard bearers William Jennings Bryan for president, and 
Adlai E. Stevenson for vice president. The Republicans nomi- 
nated as their candidates, Wm. McKinley for president, and 
Theodore Roosevelt for vice president, who were elected by a vote 
of two hundred and ninety-two to one hundred and fifty-five for 
the Democratic candidates. 

655. The Progress of a Great Nation. — When President Mc- 
Kinley entered upon his duties as president of the United States 



370 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

for a second term, never was there such an outlook before any 
president for a prosperous administration. 

The great valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers had yield- 
ed wonderful crops. The nation's financial conditions were never 
better. The commercial and manufacturing establishments were 
all prosperous. Many great corporations had been organized 
which employed thousands and thousands of working men. Every 
person who wished to work had a chance on a remunerative basis. 
In a single year of this administration the excess of our exports 



. ■ ■■ .- 




rrf ' ' 



:. -«>v 



Courtesy of American Canadian Land Co., Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
HARVESTING SMALL GRAIN IN MINNESOTA AND THE DAKOTAS 



over our imports was nearly twice as much as it had been during 
the entire period from Washington's to McKinley's administra- 
tion. We were mining nearly half of the coal, iron, and copper 
produced in the world, and instead of borrowing money from 
abroad, we were loaning to nearly every nation in Europe. It is 
stated, on good authority, that even the king of England was 
receiving more each year on his private investments in the United 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



371 



States than King George had received during his entire admin- 
istration from his unjust tax-levies upon the thirteen colonies, 
previous to the Revolutionary War. 

656. The Pan-American Exposition and the Assassination of 
President McKinley. — This great prosperity was not confined to 
the United States, but to a greater or less extent existed through- 
out the republics of the western hemisphere, and in celebration 
of this fact, there was held in Buffalo, New York, in the summer 
of 1901, a Pan-American Exposition. 




A THRESHING SCENE IN THE MISSISSIPP 



On September 6th, while holding a public reception on the ex- 
position grounds, President McKinley was shot by an anarchist 
and fatally wounded. After a few days of intense suffering the 
president passed away. 

657. Vice President Roosevelt takes the Oath of Office. — On 
being officially notified of the death of President McKinley, Vice 
President Roosevelt quietly took the oath of office and immediate- 
ly pledged himself to the policies of the martyred president, and 
invited the entire cabinet to remain. 

658. The Alaskan Boundary Dispute.— [Plate No. 10.] At 
the time of the purchase of Alaska from Russia, the boundary 
was agreed upon by these two nations, but there was still some 
misunderstanding with Great Britain, for the simple reason that 



372 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



there had been some misunderstanding between Russia and Eng- 
land. After the discovery of gold in the 
Klondike and Yukon regions, the question 
of the boundary became very serious. How- 
ever, in 1903, Secretary of State Hay and 
the British ambassador agreed to refer the 
dispute to a joint commission, consisting of 
three representatives of the United States, 
two from Canada, and one from England. 
Later in the year, this commission rendered 
a decision by which the United States was 
awarded two islands at the mouth of the 
Portland Canal and a continuous strip of 
land along the coast from the Portland Canal northward, and the 
two important towns of Skagway and Dyea. Thus by this agree- 
ment the United States gained all the important seaports along 
this part of the coast, although it lost some of the principal gold 
fields. 




THEODORE 
ROOSEVELT 




NATIVE INDIANS OP ALASKA 



659. The Great Anthracite Coal Strike. — During the summer 
of 1902 the miners of the anthracite coal mines of Pennsylvania 
struck for higher wages and shorter hours. It soon became ap- 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



373 



parent that this strike would cause suffering during the winter. 
Consequently, the president saw fit to call together at a confer- 
ence at the White House, representatives of the miners and the 
owners of the coal fields. He then persuaded them to submit 
their dispute to a board of arbitration which he should appoint. 
It was doubted by many whether or not the president had any 
constitutional authority to do this, but if he did not act officially, 
as a citizen of the United States he did what was right by inter- 
vening, inasmuch as he alleviated much suffering which would 
have necessarily been brought upon millions of his fellow country- 
men. 




A GARDENER'S HOME IN ALASKA 



660. The Isthmian Canal. — Since the discovery of gold in 
California, the question of a canal across Central America has 
often been up before congress. In 1878 a French company was 
organized, with this idea in view, having a capital of $260,000,- 
000. After working ten years, this company failed for want of 
funds. Another French company took up the work with the same 
result. 

The one thing which hindered the United States from taking 
up the project sooner, was the fact that in 1850, in the Clayton- 



374 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Bulwer treaty with Great Britain, 193 each nation was pledged 
never to gain exclusive control over the said ship-canal, and as the 
people of the United States were not desirous of building a canal 
unless they had absolute control of the same, the scheme was de- 
ferred from time to time. However, during the Spanish-Ameri- 



^ ' • 


V- .':.., ■ , 











Courtesy of Current Events 

VIEW OF PANAMA CANAL 

The picture shows a part of the canal near the Culebra cut, where the hardest 

work was done in cutting through miles of rock. By the recent breaking of a dam 

some water was let into the canal, as shown, and the slide of the east bank raised 

the bottom of the canal eighteen feet in one place. 

can War, when the battleship Oregon was forced to sail from San 
Francisco clear around South America in order to join the Ameri- 
can fleet in the West Indies [see note 191], public sentiment be- 

193 The discovery of gold in California called the attention of capitalists 
to the advisability of establishing transportation routes across the Isthmus 
of Panama, but here they came into collision with the British, who had a 
colony in Central America, and were attempting to extend their "protec- 
torate" over the coast. A British warship even bombarded the port which 
the American transportation company was making its terminus on the At- 
Atlantic side of the Isthmus. — American History, by David Saville Muzzey. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 375 

-came so strong in favor of a canal that the government at once 
communicated with Great Britain and entered into a treaty with 
this nation (Hay-Pauncefote treaty) by which the United States 
was given sole power to construct, control, and defend a canal 
built for the benefit of commerce, and open to all nations on 
equal terms. 

Congress now (June, 1902) passed the "Isthmian Canal Act," 
which empowered the president to secure the unfinished Panama 
Canal from the French company at a cost not to exceed forty mil- 
lions of dollars, and to secure the necessary concession from 
Colombia to a strip of land at least six miles wide across the 
isthmus through which the canal should be built. In 1903 a 
treaty was negotiated with Colombia for the construction of this 
canal and although the treaty was ratified by the senate of the 
United States, Colombia rejected it. The people of the state of 
Panama felt that Colombia had disregarded her best interests 
and (November, 1903) thereupon declared themselves free and 
independent and at once organized a provisional government, 
which was recognized by the United States. 

In February, 1904, a treaty was entered into by the republic 
of Panama and the United States, by which the United States 
gained complete control of a strip of land ten miles in width ex- 
tending from ocean to ocean for ten millions of dollars. Soon 
after this, the unfinished canal was bought of the French com- 
pany for forty millions of dollars. 

On May 9, 1904, General Davis, president of the canal commis- 
sion, issued a proclamation, which formally placed this strip of 
land under the jurisdiction of the United States. Work of con- 
struction was at once begun and by a very conservative estimate 
it is believed the canal will be finished and open to the commerce 
of the world during the year 1915. 

661. Presidential Election of 1904. — During this campaign, 
such leading questions as the constitutional power of the presi- 
dent in both foreign and domestic affairs, the government in its 
relation to the Philippines, the governmental regulation of the 
corporations and trusts, and the tariff question were all freely 
and thoroughly discussed. However, the discussion soon turned 
to the personality of the candidates who represented the two 
great parties. 

Alton B. Parker, chief justice of the court of appeals of the 
state of New York, who was especially noted for his conservative 
policy, was nominated for the presidency by the Democrats. 



376 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Theodore Roosevelt, whose personality was the attribute of ag- 
gressiveness, was chosen by the Republicans for their presidential 
candidate, and was elected by the largest popular vote ever given 
any presidential candidate. It might be well also to note that 
Theodore Roosevelt was the first vice president who, having suc- 
ceeded to the presidency through the death of his chief, was 
subsequently elected to fill that same responsible position. 



REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1905-1909 

662. The Rate Law of 1906. — On account of the difference in 
shipping rates which were charged by the railroad corporations, 
a great injustice was brought upon many localities, cities, and 
individuals. For a long time there had been complaints to the 
effect that the railroads were discriminating against certain lo- 
calities and industries. Consequently, in 1906, through the ef- 
forts of President Roosevelt, congress passed a law giving the 
interstate commerce commission the power of regulating sche- 
dules of railroads in regard to interstate passenger and freight 
rates. Since the passing of this law, the interstate commerce 
commission has done much towards doing away with this in- 
justice. 

663. San Francisco Earthquake. — On the 18th of September 
the entire world was shocked, upon learning that almost the en- 
tire city of San Francisco had been utterly destroyed by an earth- 
quake, followed by a terrible fire. Almost all of the more im- 
portant buildings of the city were destroyed, the total loss of 
property reaching nearly a billion of dollars. Over five hundred 
people lost their lives in this disaster, besides many hundreds who 
were crippled for life. The government rushed relief trains with 
food, medicine, tents, physicians, and soldiers to the scene as soon 
as possible. People from all over the United States contributed 
vast amounts to the relief of the distressed. 

664. Preservation of Natural Resources. — During this ad- 
ministration, at the urgent request of the president, much atten- 
tion was given by the national government as well as state gov- 
ernments, toward the passing of laws which would protect our 
great forests, and our immense fields of coal, oil, and gas. The 
president entered heartily into this movement and through his 
energy the general public became very much interested in the 
movement. 

665. Presidential Election, 1908. — The Republicans in this 
campaign nominated William H. Tafi of Ohio, who had so ably 
served the government in his administration of affairs as civil 
governor of the Philippines. The Democrats for the third time 



378 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

nominated William Jennings Bryan, while the Socialists brought 
out as their candidate, Eugene V. Debs. During this campaign 
the subject of the tariff was freely discussed. Mr. Taft in his 
speeches pledged himself to the immediate revision of the tariff. 
The Republicans won, their candidate receiving three hundred 
and twenty-one out of the four hundred and forty-two electoral 
votes 



REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1909-1913 



President Taft and the Tariff. — True to his promise, 
after his inauguration, President Taft imme- 
diately called an extra session of congress to 
consider the subject of tariff revision. After 
a long session, congress passed a new tariff 
law, which provided for the readjustment of 
the tariff rates on many different commodi- 
ties, and especially provided for a tariff 
board, whose mission it is to secure informa- 
tion to assist the president in the discharge 
of the duties imposed upon him, and the offi- 
cers of the government in the administration 
of the customs laws. 

667. The Galveston Disaster and the Commission Plan of 
Government. — In September, 1900, a tidal wave devastated the 
city of Galveston, Texas, and the people, during the rebuilding 
of the city, entrusted the management to a committee of experts. 




WILLI 



TAFT 



,« v | aBa»,f-l ill 








M 1 ^ ^^^^^MSi 






>•- c 



Courtesy of Fire Department, Sioux City, Iowa 
A MODERN FIRE ENGINE 
Compare this with fire engine under Section 187 



380 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Such efficient service was rendered by these experts that other 
cities began to investigate the plan and to pattern their munici- 
pal government accordingly. Des Moines and Cedar Rapids, two 
cities of Iowa, took the lead in this matter, and developed a plan 
of government which is being adopted by many of the leading 
cities of the United States. According to this plan of govern- 
ment, the city is governed by a mayor and a number of commis- 
sioners (generally five, including the mayor) selected by a direct 
non-partisan vote of the people, and the majority vote of these 
officials is necessary to pass any ordinance or other important 
matter. The entire affairs of the city are administered through 
departments and each member of the city council is made super- 
intendent of one of these departments. All other city officers are 
elected by a vote of the city council. It is thus readily discerned 
that the mayor and the council have and exercise all the executive, 
legislative, and judicial powers and duties. 

The executive and administrative powers, authority, and duties 
in such cities are generally distributed in and among five depart- 
ments as follows : 

1. Department of public affairs. 

2. Department of accounts and finances. 

3. Department of public safety. 

4. Department of streets and public improvements. 

5. Department of parks and public property. 

The council determines the powers and duties to be performed 
by and assigns them to the appropriate department, and pre- 
scribes the powers and duties of officers and employes; it also 
assigns particular officers and employes to one or more of the de- 
partments, and may require an officer or employe to perform 
duties in two or more departments. It may also make such other 
rules and regulations as may be necessary or proper for the effi- 
cient and economical conduct of the business of the city. 



HOME LIFE, SCHOOL ADVANTAGES, LITERATURE, AND 
GENERAL CONDITIONS 

668. The People and the Nation. — After the completion of 
the first census (1800) the population of the United States was 
found to he 5,308,483. Now, after a lapse of only oue hundred 
and ten years (1910) the census returns show a population of 
92,228, 535, 194 or, including our insular possessions, we have al- 
most multiplied the original population by twenty. 







NEW YORK CITY AND HARBOR 

In 1789 the United States contained about 827,800 square miles. 
In little over a century (1789 to 1900) she has added to her 

is* Does not include Porto Eico, which had 1,118,012; persons in military 
and naval service stationed abroad, 55,608 ; Philippine Islands, estimated at 
8,000,000; Island of Guam, estimated at 8,661; and Tutuila, estimated at 
4,600. Grand total population of United States and possessions, 101,415,412. 



382 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



territory over 2,929,000 square miles, giving a grand total of 
nearly 3,757,000 square miles of territory. 

This great increase in population and territory may be ac- 
counted for in part from the fact that the colonists and pioneers 
who first settled in this country were thrown entirely upon their 
own resources. This compelled them, in order to bring the wild 
land under cultivation, to devise many new plans which led to the 
rapid progress which has been so apparent throughout the en- 
tire history of this nation. This entire nation has, therefore, been 
settled by a class of people characterized for their adaptability, 
resourcefulness, inventive genius, education, and high moral 
character. 




A CITY PLAY GROUND 
In the larger cities, during the summer vacation, competent instructors are given 
charge of the public play grounds, and arrange and assist in the games and see that 
all the children get proper exercise. 

669. Growth of Cities. — Along with the growth of our nation 
in territory and population, even greater has been the growth of 
our cities. This perhaps may be attributed to the fact of the 
establishment of the many great manufacturing and commercial 
institutions, good school advantages, and city conveniences. In 
1790 there were in the country but six cities with a population of 
more than eight thousand, and the total urban population at that 
time was but one-thirteenth of the whole, while at the present 
time nearly one-third of our entire population are inhabitants of 
tlif cities. New York City alone, at this time, has a population 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



383 



equal to that of the thirteen colonies at the beginning of the 
Revolutionary War. 

Until quite recently it was the practice of the people to live 
close in, near to the center of the great cities, but at the present 
time, on account of the improved methods of transportation, the 
conveniences of the home, the free delivery of the mail, the police 
and fire protection, and the educational advantages, this is not 
necessary. Therefore, it is the trend at the present time for the 
people to build their homes in the outlying districts of the great 
cities. In fact, the general trend of society at the present time 
is not toward the cities to such an extent as it was a few years 
ago. Now the larger and more beautiful residences are not found 
within the confines of the great cities, but in the countryside. 




CONSOLIDATED HIGH SCHOOL AT BUFFALO CENTER, WINNEBAGO 
COUNTY, IOWA 

670. Higher Institutions of Learning. — What the United 
States has been able to do in the many different lines of advance- 
ment may be traced to our system of education. Not only does 
each state support colleges and universities for the training of 
teachers, farmers, professional men, mechanics, etc., but many 
other institutions of higher learning are provided by churches 
and other benevolent organizations. Besides these institutions, 
many of our wealthier citizens have endowed educational insti- 
tutions of research and learning, throughout the United States, 
where students wishing to follow any special line of study may 
do so. In all cities and towns high schools are provided for 



384 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the children, where they may prepare themselves for either a 
course in a higher institution of learning, or for different 
business occupations. 

671. The Common Schools. — Not only have the higher insti- 
tutions of learning received special attention, but more especially 
has the common school system of the United States in recent 
years received such attention. The inhabitants of the rural 
school districts are persuaded that if agriculture is to be pursued 
on a practical and scientific basis, it must be brought about by 
correctly educating the farmers' sons and daughters. With this 
end in view there has been .established a system of consolidated 
schools, which are becoming abundant throughout the country 
and mark a great advancement in the development of rural edu- 
cation in America. This new system of schools is bound to set a 
new standard of living for the farmers and their families, for in 
these consolidated schools the pupils are not only instructed in all 
subjects formerly taught in the sub-district school, but in addi- 
tion they have the benefit of a good high school course adapted 
especially to agriculture. The scheme of consolidation makes it 
possible to maintain a thorough up-to-date equipment, a large 
laboratory with the necessary equipment, school gardens, and 
many other accessories. The teachers are paid better salaries and 
selected with greater care. The course of study is laid out with 
a view to help the boys and girls of the country, and the students 
are hauled to and from the building in suitable vehicles made es- 
pecially for this work. Thus, the country life is made to appear 
as the ideal life and is offering as many, if not more advantages, 
than the life of the town or city. 

672. The Education of the Negro. — Since the Civil War much 
has been done by the people of this country in behalf of the edu- 
cation of the negro, aiming to improve his moral condition, and 
make it possible for him to advance and become an intelligent 
citizen. Foremost among the educators of this race, stands 
Booker T. Washington, who has organized a colored normal 
school at Tuskeegee, Alabama. This institution, opened in two 
shabby buildings with one teacher and thirty scholars, has made 
a wonderful growth, for at the present time nearly two thousand 
students art enrolled, besides the property owned by the school 
is valued a1 nearly two millions of dollars. The object of the 
school is to furnish such mental, moral, and manual training as 
will fit its students to become better citizens of the United States 
and leaders of their people. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



385 



673. Education in Our Insular Possessions. — The govern- 
ment lias also done much toward the reorganization of our insular 
possessions through its public school system. Teachers possessing 
the highest qualifications are stationed in all the islands con- 
trolled by the United States, and are given supervision of the 
schools where the children are educated. It is nothing out of the 
ordinary to meet a child of the Philippines, Porto Rico, or the 
Hawaiian Islands who can speak his native language and the Eng- 
lish language both equally well. It is believed that in the near 
future the children who receive their education in our insular 
possessions will be as well prepared for their life's work as the 
children of the United States. 




A WRIGHT BIPLANE JUST LEAVING THE GROUND 



674. Inventions.- — Certainly the many great inventions and 
discoveries which have been brought forward by the citizens of 
this nation, and which have revolutionized the industrial and 
social life, not only in this nation, but the world, is due to the 
outgrowth of the system of education, introduced by our fore- 
fathers. The cotton gin, sewing machine, the steamboat, the screw 
propeller, the modern automobile, the reaper, the rotary printing 



386 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



press, the linotype, the phonograph, the incandescent light, tele- 
graph, telegraph cable, the telephone, the electric street car, 
Wright's flying machine, and many other inventions proves the 
truth of the statement that in the world of invention and research 
the United States is far in advance of other nations. 195 

675. Newspapers and Magazines. — Among the many forces 
which have worked for the progress and civilization of this na- 
tion, none is of greater importance than the modern newspaper, 
for in point of both literary and mechanical perfection the news- 
papers of the United States stand supreme. The fathers of our 
constitution well understood the necessity of giving the news- 
paper field all the freedom that was possible, and in the constitu- 
tion the freedom of the press was guaranteed. Therefore, being 
untrammeled by any but self-imposed checks or hindrances, the 

great newspapers of the United 
States are the best exponents of 
freedom and the greatest enemies 
of unlawful adventures. During 
recent years many improvements 
have been made in a mechanical 
way, which help much in making it 
possible to bring news immediately 
into the hands of the reader. The 
modern press, running at almost 
lightning-like rapidity, will print 
many thousands of twenty or twen- 
ty-four page papers each hour. 

The linotype machine has also 

aided much in the saving of time, 

for this machine does the work of 

By courtesy of the National Printing many men with such speed and ac- 

Gompany, Cedar Rapids, iowa. curacy that it has become one of 

rm, v A LIN0TYP ^ the necessities of the modern news- 

The above cut is a Mergenthaler 
Linotype machine, No. 5. This ma- paper plant. 

chine makes and sets its own type. „ - 

It does the work of eight men and On aCCOUnt 01 these modern 
only requires one man to operate it. improvements> the subscription 

price of newspapers has been reduced to such an extent that they 
are within reach of every household. 

676. Public Libraries. — In almost every hamlet and in con- 
nection with all educational institutions may be found free public 

195 Great American Industries, by W. F. Eocheleau ; American Railway 
Transportation, by Emory K. Johnson. 




PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



387 




Courtesy of Gazette Company, Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
A MODERN TWENTY-PAGE DAILY NEWSPAPER PRINTING PRESS 
This press when running at full speed will print, fold and count over twenty- 
five thousand papers per hour. 

libraries, where the young as well as the old get books treating 
on any educational subject. Many of these libraries have been 
founded and equipped by such men as Andrew Carnegie, who 
have seen fit to distribute their vast fortunes in this way, know- 
ing that in so doing they will be benefiting humanity generally. 





: JM. 



■MR' 

•*P*l|i 



Photograph by Voris 
INTERIOR OF CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY, WASHINGTON, D. C. 



388 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

677. Railroads. — The improvement in railroad affairs has 
been a great factor in the wonderful development of the wild and 
uncultivated parts of our country. The purpose of the first rail- 
roads was merely to serve local needs, but in time the railroads 
were extended far in advance of civilization. This was made pos- 
sible, as has already been stated, by the aid given by the govern- 
ment to such companies as should extend their lines into the 
unsettled territory. After the country became settled, the smaller 
lines began to merge into trunk lines, and these in turn into great 
railroad systems. Mammoth engines now pull enormous trains 
from ocean to ocean at the speed of a mile a minute. Our great 




AN IDEAL HIGHWAY 
This road connecting two large cities was given a heavy coat of crushed gravel 
and after fifteen years of service, without being repaired, is still so smooth that 
automobiles run over it at the rate of thirty and forty miles an hour. Before receiv- 
ing the coat of gravel it was almost impassable nearly the entire year. 



passenger trains are heated by steam, lighted by electricity, made 
safe by the airbrakes and patent couplings, and the numerous 
kinds of signals which automatically announce to the engineer 
and conductor the presence of any approaching danger. The 
sleeping car, the dining car, the buffet car, the library car, the 
parlor car, and the observation car all add to the comfort of the 
traveler. It is said that the American railways are the safest in 
the world, and this is especially interesting when we take into 
consideration that the mileage of the American railways equals 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 



389 



the mileage of all Europe, excluding Russia but including the 
British Isles. 

678. Rural Highways. — While the United States is far in ad- 
vance of other nations in the building of railroads, she is far 
behind in the construction and maintenance of public roads. In 
fact, it is stated upon good authority that we have the poorest 
roads of any civilized nation in the world. This may properly be 
accounted for to some extent by the fact that our new territory 
has developed very fast, and the building of good roads neces- 
sarily takes time ; consequently, numerous poor roads are found 




Photograph by B. L. Wick, Cedar Rapids, 7c 
A TYPICAL AMANA HOME 



within our borders. However, recently much attention has been 
given to this question. Now good roads conventions are held in 
different parts of almost every state each year. This agitation has 
been brought about to a great extent by the advent of the rural 
free delivery of mail, the great and increasing use of the auto- 
mobile, and the establishment of the consolidated high schools. 
Many of the interurban highways are now being drained and 
given a covering of crushed stone. This in time will insure a 



390 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

system of permanent roads which will alleviate much of the in- 
convenience which is experienced at the present time. 

679. Communistic Societies. — Ever since the establishment of 
this republic, from time to time there have sprung up societies 
whose aim has been to eliminate the wretchedness and suffering 
among all classes. 

The most noted and the only successful colony of this kind may 
be found on the banks of the Iowa River, in Iowa county, in the 
state of Iowa. This colony is locally known as the "Dutch 
Colony;" in history, the "community of true inspiration," and 
in law and business circles, as the Amana Society. There are in 
all, in this community, about two thousand members, who own in 
common nearly thirty thousand acres of land ; operate a number 




Photograph by B. L. Wick, Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
A GROUP OF TOURISTS BEING DRIVEN THROUGH THE AMANA COLONY 



of factories, mills, and wholesale establishments; control the 
stores, shops, hotels, and traffic of every kind of eight small vil- 
lages. The Amana people trace their origin back to the year 
1714, at which time a religious sect was organized in Germany. 
Their chief characteristic is their unwavering faith in the Al- 
mighty. Religion is the keynote, piety and uprightness of char- 
acter their watchword, and authority and willing obedience their 
law. s 

The community so far has been very prosperous, and there 
seems to be no reason why in the future it should not continue to 
prosper. 



PERIOD OF EXPANSION 391 

680. The Free Ballot and the Nation. — Much has been said 
on the platform and in the press the world over, regarding our 
system of representative government. Noted foreign educators 
have prophesied ultimate failure, or the degeneration of our 
party government into a tyrannical state of "bossism," which 
would necessarily destroy the fruits of the free ballot, causing 
the offices of public trust to be filled by "politicians of availa- 
bility" rather than the "politicians of ability." 

While there may be some grounds for such criticism, there is 
no cause for distrust as long as the ballot is cast by individuals 
who are educated in the use of the franchise, the moral obligation 
of each individual to all others, and the political and economic 
theory of government to such an extent, as are the citizens of the 
United States. 

Leaders of opposite political faiths, carelessly and without any 
reason whatsoever, declare that the permitting by the voters of 
the exercising of government affairs by the opposite party, would 
mean the surrender of our rights, religion, morals, education, the 
regulation of governmental affairs, and the exercise of our rights 
as free citizens of the nation. 

Such men should remember that people will, honestly and 
rightfully, differ regarding questions of importance, and that in 
the future as in the past, the wielding of governmental affairs 
by any party chosen by the people, will of necessity be along 
those lines which are the best for the people and the nation. 196 

The evils which arise from our system of party government 

196 "A resume shows that the federalist party controlled the government 
twelve years, the old republican party, under John Q. Adams, four years, the 
democratic party, including the Tyler regime, thirty-six years, the whig 
party, four years, the republican party, forty years, ending with Eoosevelt in 
1909. During this period of one hundred and twenty years the government 
has been administered, at one time or other, by six different parties, if the 
parties are distinguished by name; if by political theory, only two have 
been in control. The old republican and the modern democratic party held 
the same theory of government, and should be identified in name as well as 
in principle. The federalist, the national republican, the whig, and the 
republican, all advocated similar principles, and should be regarded as the 
same party with different names. Taking this view of parties, the one has 
stood from the beginning for strong central government, the other for local 
self-government. The one employed the broad or loose construction of the 
constitution, the other the narrow or strict construction. During the one 
hundred and twenty years of national existence, each party has conducted 
the affairs of the nation one-half of the time. One of the most striking 
features of this party struggle is the remarkable evenness with which these 
contests have been fought out. While almost the entire electorate appears 



392 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

are but temporary, and the ability of any leader to dispel these 
evils soon asserts itself to such an extent that the people recognize 
it and insist upon placing such individuals where they will be of 
the greatest service to the nation. Lincoln, Morris, Franklin, 
Hamilton, Jefferson, Washington, the Adamses, Jackson, Webster, 
Clay, Grant, Sherman, Clara Barton, Blaine, Allison, Harriet 
Beecher Stowe, Cleveland, Roosevelt, Horace Mann, Booker T. 
Washington, and our many other American heroes and heroines, 
have not come into their usefulness and greatness by inheritance, 
but by hard and persistent labor, which made them the proper 
persons for the places to which they were called by the voice of a 
free and independent people. 

Judging the future by the past, no fear need be felt for this, 
the greatest of all nations. 



at the polls to express its conviction on public questions, only a few thousands 
make up the majority of one party over the other. ' ' — Political Theory and 
Party Organization in the United States, by Fess. 



APPENDIX 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

In Congress, July 4, 1776. 

A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 
IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and 
to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to 
which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect 
to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which 
impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: — That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable 
rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving 
their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any 
form of government becomes destructive to these ends, it is the right of the 
people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its 
foundation on such principles, and organising its powers in such form, as to 
them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed 
for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown 
that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to 
right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But, 
when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same 
object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new 
guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of 
these colonies; and such is now the necessity that constrains them to alter 
their former systems of government. The history of the present King of 
Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, 
in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. 
To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for 
the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be ob- 
tained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large dis- 
tricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representa- 
tion in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to 
tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, 



394 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose 
of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with 
manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to 
be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have 
returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the 
meantime, exposed to all dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions 
within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that 
purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners; refusing 
to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions 
of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to 
laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of offi- 
cers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the 
consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, 
the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to 
our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to 
their acts of pretended legislation: — 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders 
which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, 
establishing there an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, 
so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the 
same absolute rule into these colonies; 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments; 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, 
and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to 
complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with 
circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most bar- 
barous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to 
bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends 
and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 



APPENDIX 395 

He has excited domestic insurrection amongst us, and has endeavored to 
bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, 
whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, 
&exes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, in the 
most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by re- 
peated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which 
may define a tyrant as unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of 
the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed 
to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the 
ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would in- 
evitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been 
deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, 
acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation; and hold them, 
as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the Bepresentatives of the United States of America, in 
General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of 
the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these 
united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states; 
that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 
political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and 
ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they 
have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish com- 
merce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of 
right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on 
the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our 
lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 



SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and 
signed by the following members: — 



New Hampshire 

Josiah Bartlett, 
William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay 

Samuel Adams, 
John Adams, 
Eobert Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island 

Stephen Hopkins, 
William Ellery. 

Connecticut 
Roger Sherman, 
Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 

New York 
William Floyd 
Philip Livingston, 
Francis Lewis, 
Lewis Morris, 



John Hancock 

George Clymer, 
James Smith, 
George Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
George Ross. 

New Jersey 
Richard Stockton, 
John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abraham Clark. 

Pennsylvania 
Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benjamin Franklin, 
John Morton. 

Delaware 
Caesar Rodney, 
George Read, 
Thomas M'Kean. 

Maryland 
Samuel Chase, 
William Paca, 



Thomas Stone, 
Charles Carroll, of Car- 
rollton. 

Virginia 
George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, 
Thomas Nelson, Jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton 

North Carolina 
William Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn, 
Thomas Heyward, Jr., 
Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
Arthur Middleton. 

South Carolina 
Edward Rutledge. 

Georgia 
Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
George Walton. 



Resolved that copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, 
conventions, and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several com- 
manding officers of the continental troops; that it be proclaimed in each 
of the United States, at the head of the army. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
OF AMERICA 

[In reprinting the Constitution here, the spelling, punctuation, and cap- 
italization of the original have been preserved.] 

We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, 
establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common 
defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty 
to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution 
for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I 

Section 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a 
Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
Eepresentatives. 

Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members 
chosen every second year by the People of the several States, and the Elec- 
tors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the 
most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the 
Age of twenty five years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in 
which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several 
States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective 
Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free 
Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and exclud- 
ing Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enum- 
eration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Con- 
gress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, 
in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representa- 
tives shall not exceed one for every Thirty Thousand, but each State shall 
have at Least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, 
the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts 
eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- 
York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland 
six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the Execu- 
tive Authority thereof shall issue Write of Election to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other officers; 
and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; 
and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first 



398 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The 
Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of 
the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, 
and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one-third 
may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Eesignation, 
or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Execu- 
tive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of 
the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. 

No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of 
thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who 
shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall 
be chosen. 

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, 
but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro 
tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the 
Office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When 
sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the 
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And 
no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the 
Members present. 

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from Office, and Disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of 
honour, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted 
shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and 
Punishment, according to Law. 

Section 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Sen- 
ators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legisla- 
ture thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such 
Regulations, except as to the places of chusing Senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meet- 
ing shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law 
appoint a different Day. 

Section 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and 
Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute 
a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to 
day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, 
in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. 

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Mem- 
bers for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel 
a Member. 

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment 
require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on 
any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered 
on the Journal. 

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent 
of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than 
that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensa- 
tion for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the 



APPENDIX 399 

Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, 
Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their 
Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, 
they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was 
elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United 
States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have 
been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under 
the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continu- 
ance in Office. 

Section 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments 
as on other Bills. 

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the 
Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the 
United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, 
with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who 
shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to recon- 
sider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree 
to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other 
House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two 
thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such cases the 
Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names 
of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the 
Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the 
President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been pre- 
sented to him, the same shall be a law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, 
unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case 
it shall not be a Law. 

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate 
and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of 
Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; 
and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being 
disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House 
of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the 
Case of a Bill. 

Section 8. The Congress shall have Power 

To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts 
and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United 
States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the 
United States; 

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; 

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, 
and with the Indian Tribes; 

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws, on 
the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix 
the Standard of Weights and Measures; 

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and cur- 
rent Coin of the United States; 

To establish Post Offices and post Roads; 



400 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

To promote the progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for 
Limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Eight to their respec- 
tive Writings and Discoveries; 

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; 

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, 
and Offences against the Law of Nations; 

To declare War, grant letters of Marque and Eeprisal, and make Eules 
concerning Captures on Land and Water; 

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that 
Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; 

To provide and maintain a Navy; 

To make Eules for the Government and Eegulation of the land and naval 
Forces; 

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, 
suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for 
governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the 
United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the 
Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the Discipline 
prescribed by Congress; 

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such Dis- 
trict (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular 
States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government 
of the United States, and to exercise Like Authority over all Places pur- 
chased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same 
shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, Dock- Yards, and 
other needful Buildings ; — And 

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into 
Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Con- 
stitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or 
Officer thereof. 

Section 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the 
States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by 
the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a 
Tax or Duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars 
for each Person. 

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, un- 
less when in Cases of Eebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. 

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to 
the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 

No Preference shall be given by any Eegulation of Commerce or Eevenue 
to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall Vessels bound to, 
or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. 

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Ap- 
propriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the 
Eeceipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time 
to time. 

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no 
Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the 



APPENDIX 401 

Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, 
of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. 

Section 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confed- 
eration; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of 
Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of 
Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the 
Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. 

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or 
Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for 
executing its inspection Laws; and the net Produce of all Duties and 
Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of 
the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the 
Revision and Controul of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Ton- 
nage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agree- 
ment or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in 
War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit 
of Delay. 

ARTICLE II 

Section 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the 
United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four 
Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be 
elected, as follows 

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may 
direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and 
Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no 
Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit 
under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. 

i The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot 
for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same 
State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted 
for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and 
certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United 
States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate 
shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the 
Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the 
greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Ma- 
jority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more 
than one who have such Majority and have an equal number of Votes, then 
the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them 
for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest 
on the List the said House shall in like manner chuse the President. But in 
chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representa- 
tion from each State having one Vote; a Quorum for this Purpose shall 
consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Ma- 
jority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every Case, after 
the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes 
of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain 
two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by 
Ballot the Vice President. 



1 This clause has been superseded by the 12th amendment. 
26 



402 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing.the Electors, and the 
Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same 
throughout the United States. 

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, 
at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the 
Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who 
shall not have attained to the Age of Thirty five Years, and been fourteen 
Years a Eesident within the United States. 

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, 
Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said 
office the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may 
by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, 
both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then 
act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability 
be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his services, a Compensa- 
tion, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for 
which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period 
any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following 
Oath or Affirmation: — 

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office 
of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, pre- 
serve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." 

Section 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and 
Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when 
called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the 
Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Depart- 
ments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, 
and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against 
the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. 

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, 
to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and 
he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, 
shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of 
the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Ap- 
pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be estab- 
lished by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such 
inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts 
of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen 
during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall ex- 
pire at the End of their next Session. 

Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information 
of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such 
Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordi- 
nary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of 
Disagreement between them, with Respect to the time of Adjournment, he 
may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive 
Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws 
be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the officers cf the United 
States. 



APPENDIX 403 

Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from Office on impeachment for, and Con- 
viction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

Section 1. The Judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in 
one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from 
time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and 
inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at 
stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation which shall not be 
diminished during their Continuance in Office. 

Section 2. The Judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and 
Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and 
Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority ; — to all 
Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;— to all 
Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which 
the United States shall be a Party ; — to Controversies between two or more 
States; — between a State and Citizens of another State; — between Citizens 
of different States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands 
under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, 
and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. 

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, 
and those in which a State shall be a Party, the supreme Court shall have 
original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme 
Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such 
Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. 

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by 
Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall 
have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial 
shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. 

Section 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in 
levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them 
Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the 
Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in 
open Court. 

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but 
no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture 
except during the Life of the Person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

Section 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the 
public. Acts, Eecords, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And 
the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, 
Records, and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. 

Section 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges 
and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, 
who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand 
of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, 
to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. 

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, 
escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation 



404 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up 
on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. 

Section 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; 
but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any 
other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more 
States, or Parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the 
States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Eules 
and Eegulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the 
United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to 
Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union 
a Eepublican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against 
Invasion, and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when 
the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. 

AETICLE V 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, 
shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of 
the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention 
for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all In- 
tents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legis- 
latures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three 
fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Eatification may be proposed 
by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to 
the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect 
the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and 
that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in 
the Senate. 

AETICLE VI 

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption 
of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this 
Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made 
in pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; 
and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Con- 
stitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. 

The Senators and Eepresentatives before mentioned, and the Members of 
the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both 
of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or 
Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever 
be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United 
States. 

AETICLE VII 

The Eatification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient 
for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying 
the Same. 
Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the 

Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand 



APPENDIX 



405 



seven hundred and Ei: 
States of America the 
subscribed our Names, 



John Langdon 

Nathaniel Gorham 

Wm Saml Johnson 

Alexander Hamilton 

Wil Livingston 
Wm Paterson 

B Franklin 
Robt Morris 
Tho Fitzsimons 
James Wilson 

Geo Read 
John Dickinson 
Jaco Broom 

James M 'Henry 
Danl Carroll 

John Blair 

Wm Blount 
Hu Williamson 

J Rutledge 
Charles Pinckney 



William Few 



Attest : 



?hty seven and of the Independence of the United 
Twelfth. In Witness whereof We have hereunto 

Go Washington — 
Presidt and deputy from Virginia 
New Hampshire 

Nicholas Oilman 
Massachusetts 

Rufus King 
Connecticut 

Roger Sherman 
New York 

New Jersey 

David Brearley 
Jona Dayton 
Pennsylvania 

Thomas Mifflin 
Geo Clymer 
Jared Ingersoll 
Gouv Morris 
Delaware 

Gunning Bedford, Jun'r 
Richard Bassett 

Maryland 

Dan of St Thos Jenifer 

Virginia 

James Madison, Jr 
North Carolina 

Rich'd Dobbs Spaight 

South Carolina 

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 
Pierce Butler 
Georgia 

Abr Baldwin 

William Jackson, Secretary 



ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, THE 
CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

Proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, 
pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution. 

ARTICLE I 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, 
or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II 

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, 
the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the 
consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed 
by law. 

ARTICLE IV 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and 
effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, 
and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath 
or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the 
persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in 
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual 
service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject 
for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall 
be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be 
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy 
and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein 
the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been pre- 
viously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of 
the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have 



APPENDIX 407 

Compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favour, and to have the 
Assistance of Counsel for his defence. 

AETICLE VII 

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United 
States, than according to the rules of the common law. 

AETICLE VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel 
and unusual punishments inflicted. 

AETICLE IX 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be con- 
strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

AETICLE X 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor 
prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to 
the people. 

AETICLE XI 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of 
any Foreign State. 

AETICLE XII 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for 
President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabi- 
tant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the 
person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for 
as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for 
as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the 
number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and trans- 
mit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the 
President of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence 
of the Senate and House of Eepresentatives, open all the certificates and 
the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number 
of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority 
of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding 
three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Eepresenta- 
tives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the 
President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each 
state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member 
or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states 
shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Eepresentatives shall 
not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, 
before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President 



408 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- 
ability of the President. — The person having the greatest number of votes 
as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority 
of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a ma- 
jority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole num- 
ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible 
to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the 
United States. 

ARTICLE XIII 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish- 
ment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist 
within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States, and 
of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property 
without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction 
the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons 
in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at 
any election for the choice of electors for president and vice-president of 
the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial 
officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any 
of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and 
citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participa- 
tion in rebellion or other crimes, the basis of representation shall be reduced 
in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the 
whole number of male citizens, twenty-one years of age, in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, 
or elector of president or vice-president, or hold any office, civil or military, 
under the United States or under any State, who having previously taken 
an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or 
as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer 
of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have 
engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort 
to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each 
house remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. 
But neither the United States, nor any State, shall assume or pay any debt 
or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United 
States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such 
debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 



APPENDIX 409 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate 
legislation the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of 
race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 



PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS FROM 1789 TO 1908 

(From World Almanac, 1909.) 



AGGREGATE POPULAR VOTE AND ELECTORAL VOTE FOR CANDI- 
DATES FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT AT 
EACH ELECTION. 

Note — There is, properly speaking, no popular vote for President and 
Vice-President; the people vote for electors, and those, chosen in each State 
meet therein and vote for the candidates for President and Vice-President. 
The record of any popular vote for electors prior to 1824 is so meager and 
imperfect that a compilation would be useless. In most of the States, for 
more than a quarter century following the establishment of the Government, 
the State Legislatures ' ' appointed ' ' the Presidential electors, and the people 
therefore voted only indirectly for them, their choice being expressed by 
their votes for members of the Legislature. In this tabulation only the 
aggregate electoral votes for candidates for President and Vice-President 
in the first nine quadrennial elections appear. 

REFERENCE NOTES TO THE FIVE SUCCEEDING PAGES 

* The candidates starred were elected, (a) The first Republican party 
is claimed by the present Democratic party as its progenitor, (b) No 
candidate having a majority of the electoral vote the House of Representa- 
tives elected Adams, (c) Candidate of the Anti-Masonic party, (d) There 
being no choice, the Senate elected Johnson, (e) Eleven Southern States, 
being within the belligerent territory, did not vote, (f) Three Southern 
States disfranchised, (g) Horace Greeley died after election, and Demo- 
cratic electors scattered their votes, (h) There being a dispute over the 
electoral vote of Florida, Louisiana, Oregon and South Carolina, they were 
referred by Congress to an electoral commission composed of eight Republi- 
cans and seven Democrats, which, by a strict party vote, awarded 185 
electoral votes to Hayes and 184 to Tilden. (i) Free Democrat, (j) Free 
Silver Prohibition party, (k) In Massachusetts. There was also a Native 
American ticket in that State, which received 184 votes, (m) Middle of the 
Road or Anti-Fusion People's party, (n) United Christian party, (o) 
Union Reform party. 



ELECTORAL VOTES 

1789. Previous to 1804 each elector voted for two candidates for Presi- 
dent. The one who received the largest number of votes was declared 
President, and the one who received the next largest number of votes was 
declared Vice-President. The electoral votes for the first President of the 
United States were: George Washington, 69; John Adams, of Massachu- 
setts, 34; John Jay, of New York, 9; R. H. Harrison, of Maryland, 6; John 
Eutledge, of South Carolina, 6; John Hancock, of Massachusetts, 4; George 
Clinton, of New York, 3 ; Samuel Huntingdon, of Connecticut, 2 ; John 
Milton, of Georgia, 2; James Armstrong, of Georgia, Benjamin Lincoln, of 
Massachusetts, and Edward Telfair, of Georgia, 1 vote each. Vacancies 
(votes not cast), 4. George Washington was chosen President and John 
Adams Vice-President. 

1792. George Washington, Federalist, received 132 votes; John Adams, 
Federalist, 77; George Clinton, of New York, Republican (a), 50; Thomas 
Jefferson, of Virginia, Republican, 4; Aaron Burr, of New York, Republi- 
can, 1 vote. Vacancies 3. George Washington was chosen President and 
John Adams Vice-President. 

1796. John Adams, Federalist, 71; Thomas Jefferson, Republican, 68; 
Thomas Pinckney, of South Carolina, Federalist, 59 ; Aaron Burr, of New 
York, Republican, 30; Samuel Adams, of Massachusetts, Republican, 15; 
Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut, Independent, 11; George Clinton, of New 
York, Republican, 7; John Jay, of New York, Federalist, 5; James Iredell, 
of North Carolina, Federalist, 3 ; George Washington, of Virginia, John 
Henry, of Maryland, and S. Johnson, of North Carolina, all Federalists, 2 
votes each; Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina, Federalist, 1 
vote. John Adams was chosen President and Thomas Jefferson Vice- 
President. 

1800. Thomas Jefferson, Republican, 73; Aaron Burr, Republican, 73; 
John Adams, Federalist, 65; Charles C. Pinckney, Federalist, 64; John Jay, 
Federalist, 1 vote. There being a tie vote for Jefferson and Burr, the 
choice devolved upon the House of Representatives. Jefferson received the 
votes of ten States, which, being the largest vote cast for a candidate, elected 
him President. Burr received the votes of four States, which, being the next 
largest vote, elected him Vice-President. There were two blank votes. 

1804. The Constitution of the United States having been amended, the 
electors at this election voted for a President and a Vice-President, instead 
of for two candidates for President. The result was as follows: For 
President, Thomas Jefferson, Republican, 162; Charles C. Pinckney, Feder- 
alist, 14. For Vice-President, George Clinton, Republican, 162 ; Ruf us King, 
of New York, Federalist, 14. Jefferson was chosen President and Clinton 
Vice-President. 

1808. For President, James Madison, of Virginia, Republican, 122; 
Charles C. Pinckney, of South Carolina, Federalist, 47; George Clinton, of 
New York, Republican, 6. For Vice-President, George Clinton, Republican, 



412 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

113; Eufus King, of New York, Federalist, 47; John Langdon, of New 
Hampshire, 9; James Madison, 3; James Monroe, 3. Vacancy, 1. Madison 
was chosen President and Clinton Vice-President. 

1812. For President, James Madison, Republican, 128; De Witt Clinton, 
of New York, Federalist, 89. For Vice-President, Elbridge Gerry, of Massa- 
chusetts, 131; Jared Ingersoll, of Pennsylvania, Federalist, 86. Vacancy, 1. 
Madison was chosen President and Gerry Vice-President. 

1816. For President, James Monroe, of Virginia, Republican, 183; Rufus 
King, of New York, Federalist, 34. For Vice-President, Daniel D. Tomp- 
kins, of New York, Republican, 183; John Eager Howard, of Maryland, 
Federalist, 22 ; James Ross, of Pennsylvania, 5 ; John Marshall, of Virginia, 
4; Robert G. Harper, of Maryland, 3. Vacancies, 4. Monroe was chosen 
President and Tompkins Vice-President. 

1820. For President, James Monroe, of Virginia, Republican, 231; John 
Q. Adams, of Massachusetts, Republican, 1. For Vice-President, Daniel D. 
Tompkins, Republican, 218; Richard Stockton, of New Jersey, 8; Daniel 
Rodney, of Delaware, 4; Robert G. Harper, of Maryland, and Richard Rush, 
of Pennsylvania, 1 vote each. Vacancies, 3. James Monroe was chosen 
President and Daniel D. Tompkins Vice-President. 

1824-1908. See table on following pages: 



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416 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




EXPLORATIONS 



EAST COAST OF AMERICA: 

•: : :-: : ; :::::':" Bet.WEEN The 

YEARS 800 and 1510 

■ _J 



MAI'S AND PLATES 



417 




418 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




MAPS AND PLATES 



419 







420 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




MAPS AND PLATES 



421 




PLATE NO, 6 



422 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




MAPS AND PLATES 



423 




424 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




MAPS AND PLATES 



425 




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Territorial Uroirth of the UNlTlii) STATES 



PLATE NO. 10 



INDEX 



NUMBERS REFER TO SECTIONS AND NOT TO PAGES 



ARBITRATION, international, 635 

Acadians, removed, 174 

Adams, John, vice president, 307; 
death of, 408 

Adams, John Quincy, elected presi- 
dent, 407; the "Gag Rule," 442 

Adams, Samuel, and committee of 
correspondence, 212; and the Bos- 
ton tea party, 213; and first Con- 
tinental congress, 216; is sought 
by General Gage, 218; escapes 
Gage, 219 

Alabama, admitted as state, 399; 
secession in, 499 

Alaska, purchase of, 581; gold dis- 
covered in, 658; boundary dispute, 
658 

Albany Congress, and Franklin's 
plan of union, 171 

Algiers, war with, 388 

Algonquins, and Champlain, 39 

Allen, Ethan, captures fort Ticon- 
deroga, 220; and Benedict Arnold, 
220 

Allison, Senator Wm. B., and the 
Bland bill, 605; and the Sherman 
silver act of 1S90, 626 

Alexander VI., and line of demarca- 
tion, IS 

Alien and Sedition Laws, the, 337 

America, named after Americus 
Vespucius, 33 

Americus Vespucius, visits South 
America, 33; believes he has vis- 
ited a new world, 33; New World 
named after, 33 

Amnesty Bill, and removal of 
troops, 589 

Andre, Major, and Benedict Arnold, 
280; pass of, 280 

Anderson, Major, surrenders Fort 
Sumter, 50S 

Andros, Sir Bdmund, and the Mas- 
sachusetts charter, 103; in Con- 
necticut. 115; and the Charter 
Oak. 115; in New York, 124; and 
New Jersey, 131 

Annapolis, convention, 301 

Anti-contract, law passed, 615 

Anti-Federalists, organized, 309; and 
Thos. Jefferson, 309 

Anti-rent, difficulties, 450 

Argall, Samuel, in Virginia, 76; suc- 
ceeded Yeardly in Virginia, 78 



Armed Neutrality, of the north, 277 

Arnold, Benedict, and Ethen Allen, 

220; given command of West 

Point, 280; turns traitor, 280; in 

the south, 284 

Arthur, Chester A., as president, 609 

Articles of Confederation, adopted, 

290; government under the, 295; 

foreign affairs under the, 298; 

land sessions under the, 299 

Astor, John Jacob, and the fur 

trade, 346 
Astoria, founded by John Jacob As- 
tor, 346 
Atlanta, captured by Sherman, 555 
Atlantic Plain, physical features of, 

54 
Aztecs, conquered by Cortes, 22 

BACON, rebellion in Virginia, 85 

Bafflns' Bay, visited by Martin Fro- 
bisher, 48 

Balboa, and the Pacific Ocean, 21; 
marries daughter of Davila, 21; 
the death of 21 

Bancroft, George, and his works 435 

Banks, first United States, 317; sec- 
ond United States, 389; Andrew 
Jackson and the United States, 
417; wild cat state, 418; and Pres- 
ident Tyler, 445 

Barbary States, war with, 353; Jef- 
ferson and the, 353; Captain 
Brainbridge and the, 353; Decatur 
and the, 353; second war with, 
388 

Baton Rouge, surrendered to the 
Federals, 525 

Beauregard, General, attacks Fort 
Sumter, 508 

Berkeley, Sir William, in Virginia, 
84; and Bacon, 85; and New Jer- 
sey, 129 

Berlin Decrees, and their effect on 
the United States, 354 

Bill of Rights, the, 319 

Black Hawk, chief, 426; war, 426 

Blaine, James G., secretary of state, 
628; and the Samoan Islands, 628 

Blair, Hon. P. P., in Missouri, 512 

Bland, Richard P., and Allison bill, 
605; and the Sherman silver act, 
626 

Blue Laws, of Connecticut, 116 



INDEX 



427 



Bobadilla, sends Columbus home in 
chains, 17 

Boone, Daniel, in the west, 276 

Boston, and the King's soldiers, 206; 
massacre, 207; tea party, 213; port 
bill, 214; massacre and John Han- 
cock, 216; British shut up in, 224; 
is evacuated by British, 227; fire, 
597 

Boxer Uprising 1 , and its effect, 653 

BracUlock, General, defeat of, 173; 
death of, 173 and note 57; is suc- 
ceeded by Washington, 173 

Bradford, William, governor of 
Massachusetts, 92; writes history 
of Plymouth, 92 

Bragg - , General Braxton, at Chatta- 
nooga, 545; succeeded by General 
Johnston, 546. 

Brainbridge, Captain, and the Bar- 
bary states, 353 

Brandy wine, battle of, 256 

Birney, James G., and slavery, 441 

British, evacuate Boston, 227; trans- 
fer war to the south, 228; re- 
pulsed at Fort Moultre, 230; plan 
campaign for 1777, 245 

Brooklyn, bridge, 612 

Brooks, Freston S., assaults Sumner, 
4 91 

Brown, General Jacob, captures Fort 
Erie, 382 

Brown, John, and his raid 

Brown University, founded, 186 

Bryant, William Cullen, and his 
writings, 360 

Buchanan, James, and the Ostend 
Manifesto, 487; as president, 493; 
and his policy toward slavery. 198 

Buell, General, in the west, 522 

Bull Bun, first battle of, 516; effect 
of, 517 

Bunker Hill, battle of 222 

Burgoyne, to capture Hudson Val- 
ley. 24 5; starts up the St. Law- 
rence. 247; surrenders, 249 

Burnside, General A. E., succeeds 
General McClellan, 538; at Fred- 
ricksburg, 541 

Burr, Aaron, elected vice president, 
341; kills Hamilton, 348; commits 
treason, 349 

Butler, General, in the south, 524 

CABOTS, sail under English flag, 
45; give to England a claim to 
North America, 45 

Cabrillo, visits California, 29 

Calhoun, John C, and the war con- 
gress, 367-368; and the tariff of 
abominations (1828), 412; and the 
Omnibus bill (Compromise bill 
of 1850), 473, 475; death of, 476 

California, visited by Cabrillo, 29; 
gold discovered in, 468 

Calvert, Sir George, settles Mary- 
land, 141; tries to found a colony 
in Newfoundland, 141; dies and is 
succeeded by Cecil Calvert, 141 



Camden, captured by the British, 
279 

Campbell, General John, at Kings 
Mountain, 283 

Canada, colonized by Cartier, 37; 
United States boundary dispute in 
1808, 395 

Canonicus, gives Rhode Island to 
Roger Williams, 117 

Capitol, National, and Hamilton's 
financial policy, 313; removed to 
Washington, 340 

Carolinas, the early history, 140; 
and the Grand Model, 147; and 
the smugglers and pirates, 14S; 
and the Indians, 150 

Carpetbaggers, in the south, 583 

Carteret, Sir George, and New Jer- 
sey, 129; and East Jersey, 130 

Cartier, discovers the St. Lawrence, 
37; names Montreal, 37; in Can- 
ada, 37; and Roberval, 37 

Carver, John, first governor of Mas- 
sachusetts, 89; dies, 90 

Casswell, Colonel Bichard, at 
Moore's Creek, 229 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 560 

Cedar Bapids and Des Moines, com- 
mission plan of city government, 
667 

Census, the first, 329; in 1800, 340; 
in 1850, 481; in north and south 
and opening of Civil War, 500 

Central Plain, physical features of, 

Cervera, Admiral, at Santiago, 646 

to 649 
Champlain, the father of New 
France, 39; in the St. Lawrence 
River, 39; and De Monts, 39; and 
the Algonquins against the Iro- 
quois, 39 
Charles X,, executed, 84 
Charles II., recalls Berkeley, 85 
Charleston (S. C), captured bv Brit- 
ish, 278 
Charter Oak, and Andros, 115 
Chattanooga, battle of, 545 
Chesapeake, the, and the embargo 
act, 357; is captured by the Shan- 
non, 375 
Chicago, fire, 597 
Chickamauga, battle of, 545 
Chinese, prohibited from coming to 

United States, 611 
Chippewa, battle of, 382 
Cibola, visited by Coronado, 27 
Civil Bights Bill, passed, 576 
Civil Service, commission appointed, 

601; Pendleton act, 610 
Civil War, cost of, 569-570 
Clark, Colonel, in the west, 276 
Clark and Lewis, expedition, 345 
Clark, Wm„ and Lewis explore 

Louisiana, 345 
Clay, Henry, and war congress, 367- 
368; and Missouri Compromise, 
401; and his compromise tariff 
(1833), 424; and the United States 



428 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Bank, 445; and the Compromise 
bill of 1850 (Omnibus bill), 473- 
475; death of, 476 
Clinton, DeWitt, and the Erie Canal, 

40!) 
Claiborne's rebellion, 144 
Class Distinction, in the thirteen 

colonies, 184 
Clinton, General, succeeds Howe, 265 
Colleges, in colonial times, 186; at 
time of Civil War, 503; at present 
time, 670 
Colonies, Original Thirteen, natural 
division of the, 182, 183; occupied 
by, 183; population in, 1S3; occu- 
pation of the inhabitants of the, 
183; class distinction in, 184; re- 
ligion in, 185; education in the, 
186; libraries in, 187; literature in, 
187; postofflces in, 187; home life 
and domestic customs in, 188; 
modes of travel, 189; monev in, 
190; government in, 192 
Columbus, Christopher, his early 
life, 10; sees Iceland, 11; meets 
Perestrello, 12; and Toscanelli, 13; 
seeks aid, 14; and King John of 
Portugal, and Queen Isabella, 16; 
the courage of, 16; is successful, 
16; discovery of America, 16; 
other voyages of, 17; sent home in 
chains, 17; the death of, 17; his 
heirs and Porto Rico, 20 
Colt, Samuel, invents modern fire- 
arms, 
Constitution, adopted, 304; adoption 
of, a rebellion, 305; ten amend- 
ments to, 319; twelfth amendment 
to, 362 
Cold Harbor, battle of, 55 S 
Commission, plan of government for 

cities, 667 
Committees of Correspondents, and 

their effect, 21 2 
Communism, in Virginia, 73; at the 

present time, G79 
Commiinistic Societies, in United 

States, 679 
Compromise of 1850, or the Omni- 
bus bill, 373, 375 
Concord, military stores at, 218-219; 

and General Gage, 218-219 
Congress, Continental, during Revo- 
lution, 258 
Connecticut, visited by fishermen, 
110: and the trading posts, 110; 
settled by people from Massa- 
chusetts, 113; receives a charter, 
ill; under royal governors, 115; 
and Sir Edmund Andros, 115; 
charters annulled, 115; and the 
"Blue Laws," 116; and the Char- 
ter Oak, 115; relinquishes her land 
claims to general government, 299 
Conscription, in the south, 552 
Constantinople, fall of, 2 
Constitutional Convention, in Phila- 
delphia, 302; and the three great 



compromises, 303; presents the 
constitution, 304 
Constitution, first written, 113; of 

Pennsylvania, 134 
Constitution (old Ironsides), in War 

of 1812, 373 
Continental Congress, the first, 215; 
second, 221; resolutions of inde- 
pendence at second, 232 
Conway Cabal, and its effect, 262 

Conway, Thos., and his cabal, 262 
Cook, John C, and John Brown, 496 

Cooper, James Penimore, and his 
works, 402 

Coppock Brothers, and John Brown, 
496 

Cornwallis, General, in the south, 
278; at battle of Camden, 279; at 
King's Mountain, 283; and Greene 
in the south, 285; retreats to 
Yorktown, 290; surrenders at 
Yorktown, 293 

Coronado, and the cities of Cibola, 
27; and the plains of Quivira, 27; 
and Grand Canon of the Colorado, 
27 

Cortes, Hernando, picture, 22; con- 
quers the Aztecs, 22 

Cotton-gin, and slavery, 326 

Cotton, John, settles in Massachu- 
setts, 98 

Cowpens, battle of, and effect, 286 

Court, Supreme, established 31 S; 
John Jay, first justice of, 314 

Credit Mobilier, and the railroads, 
591 

Cromwell, succeeds Charles I, 84; 
removes Berkeley, 84 

Crown Point, and Ticonderoga dur- 
ing French and Indian War, 175; 
captured by Seth Warren, 220 

Cuba, visited by Columbus, 16; gov- 
erned by De Soto, 28; during 
Spanish-American War, 640, 641; 
after Spanish-American War, 650 

Cumberland, National Road, I mi It. 
350 

Caster, General George A,, and the 
Indians, 596 

DALE, SIR THOMAS, and Commun- 
ism, 73 

Dan River, British and Continentals 
race for, 

Davis. Jefferson, elected president 
of the Confederacy, 499; reprisals, 
510 

Dearborn, General Henry, fails in 
campaign of 1S12, 371-372; given 
command of 'Army of Center," 
374 

Dearborn, Port (Chicago), passes in- 
to hands of British, 372 

De Ayllon, and San Miguel, 24; and 
the mines of St. Domingo, 24 

Decatur, Stephen, and the Barbary 
states, 353; and war with Algiers, 
388 



INDEX 



42!) 



Declaratory Acts, and the colonies, 
203 

De Gorges, and the Spanish in Flor- 
ida, 3S 

De Kalb, ioins the American army, 
247; killed at Camden, 279 

Delaware, settled at Wilmington, 
IMS; captured by the Dutch, 139; 
saved to the Union, 513 

Delaware, Lord, and the Virginia 
charter of 1609, 72; gets sick, 73 

Des Moines and Cedar Rapids com- 
mission plan of government, 667 

De Monts, and Champlain, 39 

De Narvaez, visits Tampa Bay, 26; 
at Gulf of Mexico, 26; meets dis- 
aster, 26 

De Soto, Ferdinand, in Peru. 28; 
governor of Cuba, 28; in Florida, 
28; on the Mississippi, 28; at Mo- 
bile Bay, 28 

D'Estaing, loses at Savannah, 275; 
wounded, 275 

De Vries, settles Delaware, 138 

Dewey, George, and the battle of 
Manila, 645 

Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of 
Cape of Storms, 9 

Ding-ley Tariff, and its effect, 638 

Dinwiddie, Governor, alarmed about 
the Ohio Valley, 168; sends George 
Washington to Fort Le Boeuf, 168 

Dickinson, John, and the "Letters 
of the Pennsylvania Farmer," 205 

Donaldson, Port, captured, 520 

Douglas, Stephen A., and the Kan- 
sas-Nebraska bill, 489; and Lin- 
coln debates, 495 

Dover, settled by Georges and 
Mason, 104 

Dorr, Thonias W., and his rebellion, 
449 

Draft, riots in the north, 551 

Drake, Sir Francis, sails around the 
world, 47; and the Spanish, 47 

Draper, Dr., discovers process of 
taking portraits, 456 

Dred Scott decision, 494 

Dukes laws, in New York, 126 

EARLY, GENERAL JUBAL A., in 

the Shenandoah Valley, 559 

Earth, the, circumnavigated by Ma- 
gellan, 23; circumnavigated by 
Drake, 4 7 

East India Company, is organized, 
43; engages Henry Hudson, 44 

East Jersey, and Sir George Car- 
teret. 130 

Education, in the thirteen colonies, 
186; at time of Civil War. 503; 
and the public library, 505; at 
present time, 671-672, 673 

Edward, Fort, captured by British. 
248 

El Cano, circumnavigates the globe, 
23 

Electoral Commission, and its use, 
603 



Ellsworth, Senator, and the United 

States supreme court, 318 

Elizabeth, and her commerce, 46; 
and the Spanish Armada, 51 

Emancipation Proclamation, issued 
by Lincoln. 539 

Embargo Act, and the Chesapeake, 
357 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, and his 
works, 431 

Endicott, John, settles at Salem, 94 

Engine, Steam, the invention of the, 
327 

England, claims North America 
through exploration of Cabots, 45; 
and the Spanish Armada, 51 ; 
trouble with during Washington's 
administration, 324; and her or- 
ders in council, 354 

English throne passes from the 
Tudors to Stuarts, 63 

Ericson, John, builds the Monitor, 
5 29 

Erie Canal, built, 409 

Erie, Fort, battle of, 382 

Erskine, Minister, and President 
Madison, 365 

Espejo, founds Santa Fe, 31; ex- 
plores New Mexico, 31 

Excise Tax, and whiskey insurrec- 
tion, 315 

FAIR OAKS OR SEVEN PINES, 

battle of, 5S3 

Family Forts, The, during War of 
1812. 377 

Farragut, General, in the south, 
524; New Orleans surrendered to, 
524; in Mobile Bay, 562 

Federalist, papers and their effect, 
306; party organized, 309 

Ferguson, Major, at Kings Moun- 
tain, 283 

Fillmore, Millard, and the "Tariff 
of 1842," 442; as president of 
United States. 4 74 

Financial Conditions, in thirteen 
colonies, 190; during the Revolu- 
tion, 282; under the Confedera- 
tion. 296; during Jefferson"s ad- 
ministration, 343 

Fitch, John, and his steamboat, 328 

Flag, first, 25?, 

Fletcher, Governor, and the smug- 
glers and pirates, 148 

Florida, discovered by Juan Po^ce 
de Leon, 20: visited by John Ri- 
baut, 38: admitted as state, 455; 
secession in, 4 99 

Foote, Commodore A. H., in the 
west, 520-522 

Force Bills, in the south. 5S6 

Fort Carolina, built by Ribaut, 38 

Fort D'lqnerne, captured by Wash- 
ington. 177; renamed Fort Pitt, 

Fort Fisher, captured by Union. ."<;:; 

Fort Frontenac, captured in French 
and Indian War. 177 

Fort La China, built by LaSalle. 41 



430 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Fort Jackson, surrendered to the 
Federals, 525 

Fort Niinins, attacked by Indians, 
366 

Fort St. Louis, built by La Salle, 41 

Fort Saint Philip, surrendered to 
the Federals, 525 

Fourteenth Amendment, to consti- 
tution, 577 

Franklin, Benjamin, and the Albany 
Congress, 171 and his plan of 
union, 171; and first anti-slavery 
society, 226; and the American 
navy, 272; death of, 314 

Franklin, Win., governor of New 
Jersey, 131 

Freedmen's Bureau Bill, passage of, 
573, 574 

Frederick the Great, reference to 
Washington, 243 

Fredericksburg - , battle of, 541 

Fremont, John C, conquers Cali- 
fornia, 464; saves Missouri to the 
Union, 512 

French, the, fishermen, 34; and the 
Indians, 35; help the colonists, 
263; trouble during John Adams's 
administration with, 333; and 
X. Y. Z. papers, 334, 335; United 
States in 1804, 354; and the Milan 
decree, 354 

French and Indian War, cause, 166; 
and the Ohio Valley, 167; and plan 
of campaign, 172; treaty of peace, 
180 

Frobisher, Martin, sails into Baf- 
fin's Bay, 48 

Frontenac, Count, and the Indians, 
156 

Fugitive Slave Law, of 1793, 321; 
of 1850, 477 

Fulton, Robert, and his steamboats, 

Fundamental Orders, of Connecticut, 
113 

GADSDEN, JAMES, and the Gads- 
den Purchase, 484 

Gage, General, tries to capture 
Adams and Hancock, 218; tries to 
destrov militarv stores at Con- 
cord, 218 

Gag Rule, of 1836, 44 2 

Gallatin, Albert, and the excise tax, 
315; and the whiskey insurrection, 
315; and financial reform, 343 

Galveston, flood, 667; and the com- 
mission plan of government, 667 

Gama, Vasco de, sails to Calicut, 10 

Garfield, Jas. A., elected president, 
60S; and the federal offices, 609; 
his death. 609 

Garrison, Wm. Lloyd, and slavery, 
441; and the "Liberator," 441 

Gaspee, the burning of the, 211 

Gates, General, Burgoyne surren- 
ders to, 249; and the Conway 
cabal, 262; loses at Camden, 279; 
superseded by General Greene, 285 



Genet, Edmund, trouble with, 323 

Geneva Award, and treaty of Wash- 
ington, 595 

Genoa, Venice battles against, 4; 
Columbus born in, 11 

Georgia, settled at Savannah, 151; 
and her colonists, 152; and the 
Spanish and Indians, 153; almost 
lost to the British, 275, 278; re- 
gained by Green, 288; secession in, 
499 

Germain, Lord George, and the Rev- 
olution, 245, 249, 261; plans fail 
with Howe, 254 

Germantown, battle of, 257 

Gerry Elbridge, and X. Y. Z. papers, 
334-335 

Gettysburg, battle of, 548 

Ghent, treaty of, 386 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, visits New- 
foundland, 49 

Gist, Christopher, accompanies 
Washington. 168 

Cleveland, Grover, elected president, 
613; and the spoils system, 614; 
and the tariff, 622; elected presi- 
dent second time, 631 

Gold, discovery of in California, 
468; standard, 637 

Gorges and Mason, settle New 
Hampshire and Maine, 104; di- 
vided their territory, 105 

Gorman-Wilson Bill, 634 

Gosmold, lands at Cape Cod, 64 

Government, in thirteen colonies, 
192 

Grand Model, in the Carolinas, 147 

Grant, Ulysses S., in the west, 520; 
captures Vicksburg, 543; made 
lieutenant general, 553; in Wil- 
derness battles, 558; captures 
Richmond, 565; captures Lee's 
army at Appomattox, 565, and 
note 167; elected president, 587; 
and reconstruction, 588; death of, 
632; tomb, 632 

Greene, General, supersedes Gen- 
eral Gates, 285; recovers South 
Carolina and Georgia, 288 

Guerriere, the, in War of 1812, 373 

HAGUE PEACE CONFERENCE, 

and its effect, 652 

Halleck, General, in the west, 519; 
given supervision of army, 536 

Hamilton, Alexander, writes the 
"Federalist" papers, 306; and the 
Federalist party, 309: secretary 
of treasury, 310; financial policy 
and the national capital, 313; and 
United States Bank. 317; and 
mint. 317; killed by Burr, 348 

Hamilton, Colonel, captures Vin- 
cennes, 276 

Hampton, General Wade, given com- 
mand of "Army of North," 374 

Hancock, John, and Boston mas- 
sacre, 216; president of second 
Continental congress, 221 



INDEX 



431 



Harrison, Benjamin, elected presi- 
dent, 623; and the tariff, 624 

Harrison, William Henry, in battle 
of Tippecanoe, 366: given com- 
mand of "Army of the West," 
374; makes arrangements to cap- 
ture northwest, 376; wins battle 
of Thames, 379; as president, 444; 
his death, 444 

Harrod, James, in the west, 27 6 

Hartford, Connecticut, founded. 111; 
convention, 385 

Harvard College, founded, 186 

Haverhill, captured, by the Indians, 
156, 160 

Hawaii, during Cleveland's admin- 
istration, 651; and United States, 
651 

Hayes, B. B., elected president, 602, 
603; his southern policy, 604 

Hawkins, Sir John, and the slave 
traffic, 46 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, and his 
works, 411 

Hayne, Robert Y., and Webster de- 
bate, 421 

Hayti, visited by Columbus, 17 

Henry, Fort, captured, 520 

Henry, Patrick, and the parson's 
cause, 199 

Henry, Prince, the navigator, 8 

Herkimer, General Nicholas, in 
battle of Oriskany, 251 

Hohson, and the Merrimac, 64 7 

Holland, and the New Netherlands, 
42; received the Separatists, 87 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, and his 
works, 432 

Holy Alliance, and its effect, 403; 
and the Monroe Doctrine, 4 03 

Home Life and Domestic Customs, 
in thirteen colonies, 188; at time 
of Civil War, 506 

Hood, General, John B., succeeds 
Johnston and Thomas, 556, 557 

Hooker, Thomas, settles in Connec- 
ticut, 111 

Hooker, General J. E. (Fighting 
Joe), succeeds General Burnsides, 
542; at battle of Lookout Moun- 
tain and Missionary Ridge, 546; at 
battle at Chancellorsville, 547; is 
succeeded by General Meade, 547 

Horse Shoe Bend, battle of, 366 

Houston, Sam, and the republic of 
Texas, 454 

Howe, Admiral, strives for peace, 
235, 237; General Howe In New 
York, 254; and Washington in 
New Jersev, 255; is succeeded by 
Clinton, 265 
Howe, Elias, invents sewing ma- 
chine, 456 
Hudson, Henry, is engaged by the 
East India Company. 4 4; explores 
the Hudson River, 44 
Huguenots, attacked by Menendez, 
30, 38 



Hull, General William, surrenders 
to British, 371, 372 

Hutchinson, Anne, settles at Bos- 
ton, 98; gets into religious 
trouble, 98; moves to New Port, 
98; killed by the Indians, 98 

ICELAND, Columbus visits, 11 

Idaho, admitted, 627 

Illinois, admitted, as state, 188 

Impressment, of American seamen, 
356 

Indentured Servants, in Virginia, SO 

Indians, The, and the French, 35; 
why so called, 5"; and his con- 
querors, 56; races, nations, and 
clans, 57; food and occupation, 
58; and Wm. Penn, 56; houses and 
clothing, 59; religion and educa- 
tion, 60; future and the allotment 
acts, 61; uprising in Virginia, 82; 
and Miles Standish, 93; murder 
Anne Hutchinson, 98; and King 
Philip's War, 100; and John Eliot, 
101; in the Pequod War, 112; and 
Peter Minuit, 119; in Delaware. 
138; in the Carolinas, 150; and 
Count Frontenac, 156; capture 
Saco, 160; Haverhill, 156-160; 
Schnectady, 156; Salmon Falls, 
156; and St. Leger in Mohawk 
Valley, 250; and western immigra- 
tion, 320; at battle of Tippecanoe, 
366; at Horse Shoe Bend, 366; 
massacre people at River Rasin, 
377; in Seminole War, 4 25; in the 
Black Hawk War, 426; and Gen- 
eral Custer, 596 

Indiana, admitted as state, 391 

Independence, of England in south- 
ern colonies, 231; declared by the 
colonies July 4, 1776, 233 

Inter-Colonial Wars, causes of, 154 

Inter-State Commerce Law, passed, 
619; rate law, 662 

Intolerable Acts, viz., Boston Port, 
Transportation bill, Massachu- 
setts bill, Regulation act, Quar- 
tering act, and Quebec act, or 
Proclamation Line act, 214 

Invention, and the discovery of 
America, 7; at present time, 674 

Iowa, visited by Coronado, note 8; 
admitted in 1846, 470 

Iroquois, and Champlain, 39 

Irving, Washington, and his writ- 
ings, 359 

Island Number Ten, battle of, 522 

JACKSON, ANDREW, at battle of 
New Orleans, 387; at battle of 
Horse Shoe Bend, 366; as president, 
413; and his Kitchen Cabinet, 415; 
and the spoils system, 416 ; and the 
United States bank, 417; and the 
"specie circular," 419; and nulli- 
fication. 423; and the Seminole 
War, 4 25 



432 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Jackson, T. J. (Stonewall), raid in 
the Shenandoah Valley, 534; mor- 
tally wounded, note 157 

Jamestown, the first English settle- 
ment, 67; colonized by fortune 
hunters, 68; during the starving 
time, 71 

Jasper, Sergeant, saves flag at Fort 
Moultrie, 230, and note 78; his 
death, 27 5 

Jay, John, writes the "Federalist" 
papers, 306; first chief justice, 
314; treaty with England, 325 

Jefferson, Thos., and the anti-Fed- 
eralists, 309; secretary of state, 
310; and the national capital, 313; 
president, 342; and his financial 
reform, 343; and the Barbary 
states, 353; and his "Gunboat" 
navy, 355; and the Embargo act, 
357; death of, 408 

John I., King, and his discoveries, 
8; Columbus and, 14 

Johnson, Andrew, vice-president, 
564; as president, 565, 571; car- 
ries forward Lincoln's plan, 572; 
and congress, 575, 578; impeach- 
ment of, 580 

Johnston, General Albert Sidney, in 
the west, 519, 522 

Johnston, Joseph E., at battle of 
Bull Run, 516; in the west, 519; in 
Georgia, 554; around Atlanta, 555; 
captured by Sherman, 567 

Joliet and Marquette, explore the 
upper Mississippi rivfr, 40 

Jones, John Paul, on the sea, 273 

Julian Calendar, dropped, 191 

KASKASKIA, captured by Clark, 
276 

Kansas, visited by Coronado. 27; 
and Nebraska bill, 489; civil war, 
490; John Brown, 486 

Kearney, General Stephen W., cap- 
tured Santa Fe, 464 

Kentucky, admitted as state, 3 29; 
and Virginia resolutions, 338; 
saved to the Union, 513 

King George's War, begins, 164; and 
the French, 163; treaty of peace, 
165 

Kings Mountain, battle of, 282 

King William's War, cause of, 155; 
convention of the colonies called, 
156 

Kitchen Cabinet, of Andrew Jack- 
son, 415 

Knox, Henry, secretary of war. TMO 

Koscuisko, joins the American army, 
246; with Greene in the south, 285 

Koszta, Martin, in trouble, 485 

Ku Klux Klan, in the south, 585 

r-ABOR UNIONS, and their effect, 

613, 617, and note 183 
Lafayette, joins American armv, 

246; at battle of Monmouth. 266; 

and Wayne oppose Cornwallis, 



290; and the Bunker Hill monu- 
ment, 397; visit to United States, 
405 

Lake Champlain, battle of, 383 

Lake Michigan, explored by La 
Salle, 41 

La Salle, and New France, 41; builds 
Fort La China, 41; explores Mis- 
sissippi River to its mouth, 41; 
builds Fort St. Louis; gave to 
France Louisiana, 41; is mur- 
dered, 41 

Lee, Charles (the traitor), in New 
Jersey, 239; is captured, 240; at 
battle of Monmouth, 266; is court- 
martialed, 267 

Lee, Harry (Light Horse Harry), in 
the south. 2S2 

Lee, Richard Henry, and his resolu- 
tions of independence, 232 

Lee, General Robert E., succeeds 
General Johnston, 533; invades 
the north, 537; at battle of An- 
tietam, 538; second invasion of the 
north, 547, 548; at battle of Get- 
tysburg, 548; surrenders to Giant 
at Appomattox, 565, and note 167 

Leisler, Jacob, in New York, 124 

Letters of The Pennsylvania Parm- 
er, and their effect, 205 

Lewis, Meriwether, and Clark ex- 
plore Louisiana, 345 

Lexington, battle of, 219 

Libraries, in colonies, 187; at time 
of Civil War, 505; at present time, 
676 

Liberator, The, and slavery, 441 

Lincoln, Abraham, and Douglas de- 
bates, 495; as president, 507; first 
proclamation of blockade, 510; 
and the emancipation proclama- 
tion, 539; second election, 564; 
death of, 565 

Lincoln, General Benjamin, given 
army in the south, 274: and 
d'Estaing lose at Savannah, 275 

Line of Demarcation, Alexander VI. 
and the, 18; establishing of the, 
IS: Spain and the, 18; Portugal 
and the, 18; England and the, 18; 
France and the, 18 

Linotype, and its uses, 675 

Literature, in colonies, 187; at the 
time of Jackson's administration, 
427 

Livingston, Robert R., administers 
oath of office to Washington, 307 

London and Plymouth Companies, 
and the Virginia Company, their 
charter. 65 

London Company, settles James- 
town, 67 

Longfellow, Henry, and his works, 
429 

Long Island, battle of, 236 

Lords of Trade, and first taxation 
law, 196 

Louisiana, claimed by France, 41; 
transferred to Spain, ISO; re- 



INDEX 



433 



ceded to France, 344; purchased 
by United States, 344; admitted 
as state, 391; secession in, 499 
Louisburg, captured, 164; during 

French and Indian War, 176 
Lookout Mountain, battle of, 546 
Lovejoy, Elijah P., and slavery, 441 
Lowell, James Russell, and his 
works, 434; and slavery, 441; and 
secession, 499 
Lundy's Lane, battle of, 382 
Lyon, General Nathan, saves Mis- 
souri to the Union, 512 

McCLELLAN, GENERAL GEORGE 

B., in West Virginia, 511; and his 
education, note 147; Pennsylvania 
campaign, 531; captures York- 
town, 532; in battle of Fair Oaks 
or Seven Pines, 533; at Seven 
Days' battle, 536; at battle of An- 
tietam, 538; removed from the 
command, 538 

McCormick, Cyrus H., invents mow- 
ing machine, 456 

McDowell, General, at battle of Bull 
Run, 516 

McKinley, Win., and the tariff, 624, 
elected president, 636; and the 
gold standard, 637, death of, 656 

MADISON, JAMES, writes the 
"Federalist" papers, 306; as pres- 
ident, 364; negotiation with Eng- 
land and France, 365; and the 
war congress, 367-368 
Mafia, in New Orleans, 629 
Magellan, discovers Straits of Ma- 
gellan, 23; completes circuit of 

Magna Charta, in Virginia, 77 

Maidens, arrive in Virginia, SI 

Maine, settled, 66-107; united with 
Massachusetts, 108; character of 
people in, 109; admitted, 1820, 401 

Maine (battleship), sinking of the, 
642-643 

Maine and New Hampshire, settled 
by Gorges and Mason, 104; di- 
vided, 105 

Mandeville, Sir John, and his trav- 
els, 5 

Manila, battle of, 645 

Marion, General Francis, in the 
south, 282, 285 

Marshall, James W., discovers gold 
in California, 468 

Marshall, John, and X. Y. Z. papers, 
333, 334; announces death of 
Washington, 339; justice of su- 
preme court, 340; and the Seminole 
War, 425 

Marquette, and Joliet explore the 
upper Mississippi River, 40; ex- 
plore the Illinois River, 40; visit 
Lake Michigan, 40; the present 
site of Chicago, 40; dies of a 
fever, 40; buried at Mackinaw, 40 



Maryland, settled at St. Mary's, 141; 
and the first colonists, 143; and 
her government, 14 2; and Clai- 
borne, 144; and her growth and 
toleration, 145; saved to the 
union, 513 

Mason, John M., and the Trent af- 
fair, 515 

Mason, John Y., and the Ostend 
manifesto, 487 

Mason and Dixon Line, between 
Pennsylvania and Delaware, 136 

Mason and Gorges, settle Maine and 
New Hampshire, 104; divide their 
territory, 105 

Massachusetts, is settled through 
religious controversy, 86; settled 
at Plymouth, 90; during the first 
winter, 91; first governor, John 
Carver, 89; second governor, Wm. 
Bradford, 92; settled at Salem and 
Boston, 94; charter, 95; charter 
and Governor Andros, 103; bill or 
regulation act, 214; organizes a 
provincial government, 217; re- 
linquishes her land claims to gen- 
eral government, 299 

Massasoit, in Massachusetts, 93 

Mayflower, compact, 89; sails into 
Cape Cod Bay, 88 

Maximilian, in Mexico, 582 

Maxon, William, and John Brown, 

Meade, General George E., succeeds 
Johnson, 547; at battle of Gettys- 
burg, 548, 549 

Mendenez, founds St. Augustine, 30; 
and the Huguenots, 30; builds 
Fort San Marco, 30 

Merrimac and Monitor, battle be- 
tween the, 528, 529, 530 

Merritt, General, and Manila, 645 

Mexico, and Maximilian, 582 

Mexican War, declared. 459; closed 
bv treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 
465 

Milan Decree, and its effect on the 
United States. 354 

Miles, General Nelson A., in Cuba, 
648 

Mill Spring, captured. 520 

Mint, United States, first, 317 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 546 

Mississippi, admitted as state, 399; 
secession in, 499 

Mississippi River, visited by De 
Soto, 28; explored by Marquette 
and Joliet, 40; explored by La 
Salle 41 

Missouri, admitted, 1821, 401; saved 
to the Union, 512 

Missouri Compromise, in the sen- 
ate. 401 

Mobile Bay, visited by De Narvaez, 
26 

Modes of Travel, in thirteen col- 
onies, 189 

Mohammed II., captured Constan- 
tinople, 2 

Money, used in thirteen colonies. 



434 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



190; bad during Revolutionary 
War, 281 

Monitor and Merrimac, battle be- 
tween the, 528-529-530 

Monmouth, battle of, 266 

Monroe Doctrine, and holy alliance, 
402; and its use in our admin- 
istrative policy, 402; and Vene- 
zuela, 635 

Monroe, James, elected president, 
392, 393 

Montana, admitted, 627 

Montcalm, General, is captured at 
Quebec by Wolfe, 179 

Montezuma, conquered by Cortes, 22 

Montreal, is named by Cartier, 37; 
captured during French and In- 
dian War, 180 

Moore's Creek, battle of, 229 

Morgan, General, with Green in the 
south, 285; at battle of Cowpens, 
285 

Mormons, found a religion, 451; 
move to Utah, 452; give up poly- 
gamy, 611 

Morris, Robert, aids Washington, 
244, 291; his greatness, 244-292 

Morse, Samuel F. B., invents tele- 
graph, 456 

Morton and Jackson, Drs., discover 
uses of ether in surgery, 456 

Moultrie, Colonel, defend Charles- 
ton, 230 

Moultrie, Port, during Revolution- 
ary "War, 230; abandoned by Major 
Anderson, 508 

Mound Builders, in the United 
States, 62 

NAPOLEON, BONAPARTE, be- 
comes first consul of France, 336, 
makes peace with United States, 
336; and death of Washington, 
339; sells Louisiana, 344; and the 
Berlin Decrees, 354; and his Milan 
Decree, 354; deceives the United 
States, 369 

Naturalization, fraudulent, 356 

Navigation Acts, and acts of trade, 
195 

Navy, improved, 630 

Nebraska, visited by Coronado, 27 

New Amsterdam, and Dutch Trad- 
ers, 119; and West India Com- 
pany, 119; and her settlements, 
120; and the patroons, 121; be- 
comes New York, 122 

New Poundland, is visited by Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert, 49 

New Prance, visited by Verrazano, 
36; visited by Champlain, 39; ex- 
plored by La Salle, 41 

New Hampshire, government of, 
106; and Maine settled by Gorges 
and Mason, 104; and Maine di- 
vided, 105 

New Jersey, visited by Henry Hud- 
son, 129; settled by Dutch and 
Swedes, 129; captured by the 



Stuyvesant, 129; given to Berk- 
eley and Carteret, 129; and the 
Duke of York, 131; and Sir Ed- 
mund Andros, 131; Washington 
retreats across, 239; battles in by 
"Washington and Howe, 255 

New Mexico, visited by Coronado, 
27; explored by Espejo, 31 

New Netherlands, and Holland, 42; 
establishes colonies, 44; and New 
York. 120 

New Orleans, battle of, 387; cap- 
tured by Jackson, 387; surren- 
dered to Farragut, 524; and the 
Mafia, 628 

New York, and the Dutch Traders, 
119; and the West India Company, 
119; and her settlements, 120; and 
the patrons, 121; and Andros, 
Leisler and Sloughter, 124; and 
her government, 125; and Duke's 
Laws, 126; and religion, 127; and 
education, 128: protected by 
Washington, 234; captured by 
British, 238; surrenders her land 
claims to government, 2S9, 299 

Non-Importation Agreement, and 
the Virginia resolutions, 209 

Non-Intercourse Act, against Eng- 
land and France, 358 

North America, physical features of, 

North Carolina, formed, 149 
North Dakota, admitted, 627 
Nullification, launched by Calhoun, 
412; in South Carolina, 423 

OGLETHORPE, JAMES E., returns 
to England, 153 

Ohio, admitted, 361 

Ohio Company, and the buried 
plates, 167; employed Geo. Wash- 
ington, 168 

Ordinance, of 1787; passed by Con- 
gress. 300; its effect, 300 

Omnibus Bill, and the Compromise 
of 1S50, 475, 573 

Original Thirteen Colonies, severe 
punishment in, 193; growth of 
democracy in, 194; makes treaty 
with France, 263 

Oriskany, battle of, 251 

Ostend Manifesto and its effect, 4 87 

Otis, James, and "Writs of Assist- 
ance," 198 

PACKENHAM, GENERAL, at battle 
of New Orleans, 387 

Panama Canal, and its future, 660 

Pan-American Exposition, and as- 
sassination of President McKin- 
ley, 656 

Panic, of 1837, 420; of 1873, 598; 
of 1S93, 633 

Parker, Captain, at Concord and 
Lexington, 219 

Parker, Ely P., writes terms of sur- 
render at Appomattox, note 167 

Parker, Theodore, and slavery, 441 



INDEX 



435 



Partisan Leaders, Harry Lee, 
James Williams, Andrew Pickens, 
Thomas Sumter and Francis 
Marion, 282; William Campbell, 
John Sevier, 283; General Mor- 
gan, 285 

Patroons, The, in New York, 121 

Femberton, General J. E., surren- 
ders Vicksburg to General Grant, 
543 

Pendleton, civil service, 610 

Pennsylvania, and the Quakers, 133; 
and her constitution and laws, 
134; growth, 137 

Penn, Wm., and the Indians, 5G, 
135; in West Jersey, 130, 131; 
and his holy experiment in Penn- 
sylvania, 133; in Delaware, 139, 
140 

Fequod, war, 112 

Perestrello, Columbus meets, 12 

Perry, Matthew C, secures treaty 
with Japan, 4S6 

Perry, Commodore O. H., captures 
British, of Lake Brie, 378 

Peru, captured by Pizarro, 25 

Personal Liberty Bill, and slavery, 
4 78 

Petroleum, discovery and uses of, 
600 

Pirates and Smugglers, in the Caro- 
linas and Governor Fletcher, 148 

Philip, King-, war, 100; is murdered, 
100 

Phillip II., and Queen Elizabeth, 51; 
and his Armada, 51 

Phillips, "Wendell, and slavery, 441; 
and John Brown, 496 

Phipps, Sir William, captures Port 
Royal, 157 

Pickens, General Andrew, in the 
South, 282 

Pickett, General, at battle of Gettys- 
burg, 54S 

Pinckney, Charles C, and the 
French, 333; and the X. T. Z. 
papers, 334, 335 

Pierce, Pranklin, as president, 483; 
and Kansas, 491 

Pike, Zebulon, explores the Missis- 
sippi valley and the southwest, 
347 

Pilgrims, also known as Separatists, 
88; land at Plymouth Rock, 90; 
experience "hard times," 91 

Pitt, Wm., and the French and In- 
dian War, 177; and the Revolu- 
tionary War, 264; dies, 264 

Pittsburg- Landing-, battle of, 522 

Pizarro, conquers Peru, 25 

Plymouth, colony on the Kennebec, 
66 

Plattsburg-, battle of, 383 

Pocahontas, and John Smith, 70 

Poe, Edgrar Allan, and his works, 
428 

Polk, James X., elected president, 
457 



Polo, in the Orient, 4; captured by 
the Genoese, 4 

Ponce de Leon, accompanies Colum- 
bus, 20; governor of Porto Rico, 
20; and the fabled fountain, 20; 
discovers Florida, 20; his death, 
20 

Pontiac, and his conspiracy, 181 

Popham, Geo., and the Plymouth 
colony, 66 

Population, in 1790, 329; in 1S00, 
340; in 1850, 481; in north and 
south, and opening of Civil War, 
500 

Port Hudson, captured by the Fed- 
erals, 544 

Port Royal (Annapolis), captured, 
157, 161; renamed Annapolis, 161 

Port Royal (South Carolina), Ri- 
baut at, 3S 

Porter, Captain, in the South, 524 

Portsmouth, settled by Gorges and 
Mason, 104 

Portug-uese, The, early discoveries 
of, 8 

Postag-e, reduced, 611 

Postofflces and Mails, in colonies, 
and mails at time of Civil War, 
504; and reduced postage, 611; 
and newspapers and mails at 
present time, 675 

Prediscovery, conditions, 1 

Prescott, Wm. H., and his works, 
436 

Preservation of Natural Resources, 
664 

Presidential Election, of 1788, 307; 
of 1796, 331; of 1800, 341; of 1808, 
363; of 1816, 392; of 1824, 406; 
of 1828, 413; and national nom- 
inating- conventions, 438; of 1836, 
439; of 1840, 443; of 1S44, 457; 
of 1848, 471; of 1852, 482; of 1856, 
492; of 1860, 407; of 1864, 564; of 
1S68, 587; of 1872, 594; of 1876, 
602; of 1SS0, 608; of 1844, 613; of 
1888, 623; of 1892, 631: of 1896. 
636; of 1900, 654; of 1904, 661; of 
1908, 665 

Presidential Succession Law, passed, 
618. and note 1S4 

Princeton University, founded, 186 

Pnlaski, joins the American army, 
246; is killed, 275 

Puritans, settle at Salem, 94; ex- 
odus. 96 

Proclamation Line Act, or Quebec 
act, 214 

QUAKERS, THE, in Massachusetts, 
99: in West Jersey, 130; in Penn- 
sylvania, 13 2 

Quartering- Act, or Massachusetts 
bill. 214 

Quebec, captured by Wolfe, 179; act 
or proclamation act, 214 

Queen Anne's War. caused by, 158; 
in the south, 159; in the north, 
160; is closed by treaty, 161 

Quivira, visited by Coronado, 27 



436 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



RAILROADS, introduction of, 410; 
slavery and the underground, 479; 
transcontinental, 590; at present 
time, 677 

Railroad Rate Law, of 1906, 662 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, on Roanoke Is- 
land, 50; made a prisoner, 63 

Randolph, Henry, attorney general, 
310 

Regulation Act, or Massachusetts 
bill, 215 

Religion, in the thirteen colonies, 
185 

Reconcentrados, during Spanish- 
American War, 641 

Religious Toleration, in Connecticut, 
113; in Rhode Island, 117; in New 
York, 127; in Pennsylvania, 134; 
in Maryland, 145 

Renaissance, in Italy, 3 

Representative Assembly, the first, 
78 

Resumption, of specie payment, 606 

Revere, Paul, rallies the minute 
men, 218 

Rhode Island, settled at Providence, 
117; by Rodger William, 117; and 
religious toleration, 117; and her 
constitution, 117; and her char- 
ters, 118 

Ribaut, John, and the Huguenots in 
Florida, 38: at Port Royal, 38; 
names Fort Carolina, 38; and 
Menendez, 3S 

Richmond, captured by Grant, 565 

River Rasin, captured by Indians, 
377 

Roanoke Island, settled by Sir Wal- 
ter Raleigh, 50; captured, 50 

Roberval, and Cartier, 37 

Roosevelt, Theodore, elected vice 
president, 654; as president, 657; 
elected president, 661 

Rural Highways, as they are to- 
day, 678 

ST. AUGUSTINE, is founded by 
Menendez, 30 

St. Lawrence, is discovered by Car- 
tier, 37; visited by Champlain, 39 

St. Leger, and his Indians in Mo- 
hawk Valley, 250; at battle of 
Oriskany, 251; returns to Canada, 
252 

St. Marys, first settlement in Mary- 
land, 141 

SACO, captured by the Indians, 160 
Salary Grab, and its effect, 593 
Salem, witchcraft, 102, 158 
Salmon Falls, captured by the In- 
dians, 156 
Sampson, General, at battle of San- 
tiago, 648 
Samoan Islands, trouble in the, 

given to United States, 628 
San Diego, is visited by Cabrillo, 29 
Sandys, in Virginia, 81 
San Francisco, earthquake, 663 



San Marco, Fort, built by Menendez, 
30 

San Miguel, and De Ayllon, 24 

San Salvador, visited by Columbus^ 
16 

Santa Fe, and Coronado, 27; found- 
ed by Espejo, 31 

Santiago, battles around, 646-649 

Saratoga, Burgoyne surrenders at, 
249 

Savannah, first settlement in 
Georgia, 151; captured by British, 
275 

Say and Brooke, Lord, receive grant 
of Connecticut, 110 

Schenectady, captured by the In- 
dians, 156 

Schley, General Winfield S., at San- 
tiago, 648 

Schools, books studied by the col- 
onial children, note 61-a; in col- 
onial times, 186; at time of Civil 
War, 503; at the present time, 671 

Schuyler, General, opposes Bur- 
goyne, 248, 262 

Scott, Winfield, General, captures 
British at Chippewa, 382; in Mex- 
ican War, 461, 462 

Secession, in the South, 499; of the 
different, 499, and note 145 

Seminole War, and its effect, 394; 
second, 4 25 

Separatists, emigrate to Holland, 87; 
decide to move to America, 88; 
sail into Cape Cod Bay, 88; 
known as Pilgrims, 88 

Seven Days Battle, and McClellan, 
536 

Seven Fines or Fair Oaks, battle of, 
533 

Sevier, General John, at Kings 
Mountain. 2S3 

Seward, William H., and the com- 
promise bill of 1850 (omnibus 
bills), 473, 475 

Shafter, General, in Cuba, 648 

Shay, Daniel, causes rebellion in 
Massachusetts, 297 

Shannon, The, captures Chesapeake, 
375 

Shenandoah Valley, Jackson in the. 
534; Early in the, 559 

Sherman, General Wm. T., cam- 
paign against Atlanta, 555; 
marches from Atlanta to sea, 556; 
in the Carolinas, 567 

Sherman Silver Act, of 1S90, 626; 
repeal of, 633 

Sheridan, General Philip H., in the 
Shenandoah Valley against Gen- 
eral Early. 559. 560; at battle of 
Cedar Creek, 560 

Silver, demonetization of, 599 

Slavery, in the West Indies, 46; in 
Virginia, 79; first anti-slavery 
formed, 226; laws of 1793, 321; 
and the cotton gin, 326; and the 
United States senate, 400; and 



INDEX 



4)1 7 



the Missouri compromise, 401; 
anti-slavery movement, 441 

Slidell, John, and the Trent affair. 
515 

Sloat, Commodore, captures Cali- 
fornia, 464 

Sloughter, Governor, in New York. 
124 

Smith, Captain John, his history, 
68; and Pocahontas, 70; and the 
starving time, 71 

Smith, Garret, and John Brown, 496 

Smith, Joseph, and the Mormons, 
451 

Smugglers and Pirates, in the Car- 
olinas, 148 

Snyder, Christopher, first martyr of 
revolution. 207 

Soule, Pierre, and the Ostend Man- 
ifesto, 487 

South America, visited by Americus 
Vespucius, 33 

South Carolina, visited by I >>• Soto, 
28; formed, 150; almost lost to 
the British, 275, 278; regained by 
Greene, 288; Secession of. 499 

South Dakota, admitted, 627 

Spain, and Queen Elizabeth, 51; and 
war with United States, 639; at 
close of war, 64 9 

Spanish, The, reasons for coloniza- 
tion by, 19; reasons for the fail- 
ures of, 32; in Florida and de 
Gorges, 38: Armada and England, 
51; and Indians in Georgia, 153; 
treaty of 1795, 316; American 
War, 63 9, 64 4; at close of Spanish- 
American War, 649 

"Specie Circular," and President 
Jackson, 419 

Spoils System, and Andrew Jackson, 
416; and Civil Service, 601, 610; 
and Garfield, 609; and Cleveland. 
614 

Springdale (Iowa), and John Brown, 
4 96 

Squanto, in Massachusetts, 93 

Stamp Act, and taxation without 
representation, 200; congress, 201; 
repeal of, 2112 

Standish, Miles, and tin- Indians, 93 

Stark, John, captures tin- Hessians, 
249 

Statue of Liberty, presented to 
United States. 620; built by Bar 
tholde, 620 

Steamboat, first, 3 28 

Steuben, Baron, joins American 
army, 246; and his military 
school, 260; in the south against 
Arnold, 284 

Stephens, Alexander 11.. vice presi- 
dent of tin- Confederacy, 499 

Stephenson, Geo., and tin' steam en- 
gine, 326 

Stony Point, captured by Wayne, 
271 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, and her 
"Unci.' Tom's Cabin," 480 



Strikes, and corporations, 607; 

anthracite coal, 659 
Sumner, Charles, assaulted by 

Brooks, 4 91 
Sumter, Fort, captured, 508 
Sumter, General Thomas, in the 

sou tli. 282; 285 
Surplus Revenue, and its effect, 621 
Sutter, John A., gold discovered in 

mill race owned by, 16s 

TAFT, WM. H., elected president, 
665; and the tariff, 666 

Tampa Bay, visited by De Sot". 28 

Tariff, defined. 312; of 1789, 311; 
first protective (1816), 390; of 
1824, 104; of abmoniations (1828t. 
412; of 1832, 122; of 1833, by Clay. 
4 24; of 184 2. 44S; Walker tariff 
of 1S46. Mills Tariff, 622; McKin- 
ley, 624; Dingley bill, 638; under 
Taft. 666 

Tarleton, in South Carolina. 2 ,s ; 
at Battle of Cowpens, 286 

Taxation law, first and lords of 
trade, 196 

Taxation without Representation, 
and the stamp act. 200 

Taylor, Zachary, campaign in Mex- 
ican War, 460, 162; as president, 
471-472: his death, 17 1 

Tea Tax, removed, 210 

Tecumseh, Chief, killed at battle of 
the Thames. 2,79 

Telegraph, inventions of the, 456 

Tennessee, admitted as state. 329 

Tenure of Office Act, passed, 579 

Texas, the republic of, 153; admit- 
ted as state, 454; dispute about 
boundary line between Mexico 
and, 458; secession in. 499 

Thames, battle el' the. :',7'.i 

Thirteenth Amendment, passed, 54 
(see also constitution in ap- 
pendix > 

Thomas, General George H., in the 
west. 5 20; at Chattanooga and 
Chickamauga, 545; succeeds Rose- 
crans, 546; and Hood. 556, 557 

Ticonderoga, and Crown Point dur- 
ing French and Indian War. 175; 
captured by Ethan Allen. 229; 
falls into hands of British, 248 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 366 

Travel, means of. 1 7 T !». 189; at the 
opening of Civil War. 502 

Tobacco, raised in Virginia, 7 3 

Toscanelli, idea of the earth, 6; Col- 
umbus and, 1 2 

Townsend, James, and John Brown, 
496 

Townshend, Acts, and the colonies, 
204 

Trade Acts, and navigation acts, 195 

Transportation, hill. 214 

Trent, The, affair, .".15 

Trenton, captured by Washington, 
2 1 1 



438 STUDENTS' HISTORY OP THE EXITED STATES 



Tuscuroras, in North Carolina, 150, 

153, 162; joins the "Six Nations," 

150, 162 
Tyler, John, as president, 444; 

and the United States bank, 445; 

deserted by the Whig party, 446 

UNCLE TOM'S CABIN, by Harriel 
Beecher Stowe, 4S0 

Underground Railroads, and slavery, 
479 

Union in the Colonies, luck of, 208 

United States, territorial develop- 
ment of, in 1789, 308; in 1795, 316; 
in 1803, 344; line of 1818, 395; in 
1819, 396; by Webster- Ashburton 
treaty of 1842, 446; northwest 
boundary in 1846, 469; extent of 
at time of Civil War, 501; Alaska 
annexed, 581; progress as a na- 
tion, 655; Samoan Islands an- 
nexed, 62S; is given Philippines, 
Porto Rico, etc., 649; Hawaii an- 
nexed, 651; growth of, 668; and 
669; future of, 680 

VALMY FORGE, suffering at, 259 
Van Buren, Martin, as president, 440 
Van Rensselaer, General Solomon, 

and his campaign into Canada, 

Venezuela, and the Monroe Doctrine, 
6 3 5 

Vermont, admitted as state, 329 

Verrazano, and New France, 36; his 
letters to the French King, 3 6 

Vicksburg, battle of, 543 

Vincennes, captured by Clark, 276; 
captured by Hamilton, 27 6 

Virginia, settled at Jamestown, 67; 
and the charter of 1609, 72; and 
the third charter, 74; and the cul- 
ture of tobacco, 75; ruled by Sam- 
uel Argall, 76; and the Magna 
Charta, 77; and slavery. 79; and 
indentured servants, 80; has 
trouble with the Indians, 82; and 
the first representative assembly, 
78; receives a ship load of 
maidens, 81; has charter revoked, 
83; under Sir William Berkeley, 
84; and Bacon's rebellion, 85; and 
the London and Plymouth Com- 
pany, til. 65; resolutions, 209; re- 
linquishes her land claims to 
general government, 299; and 
Kentucky resolutions, 338 

WALKER, WILLIAM, and the 
Walker expedition, 488 

War of 1812, declared, 368; causes 
for, 368; relative strength of na- 
tions engaged in, 370; plan of 
operation for year 1812, 371; plan 
a failure, 372; plan of operations 
for 1813, 374; on the ocean, 373, 
384; plan of operations for year 
1814, 381 



Warner, Seth, captures Fort Crown 
Point, 220; captures the Hessians, 
249 

Washing-ton, admitted, 627 

Washington, Geo., employed by Ohio 
Company, 168; sent by Governor 
Dinwiddie to the French, 168; 
advises the English to build forts, 
169; builds Fort Necessity, 170; 
defeated by the French, 170; takes 
command of Braddock's army, 173; 
captures Fort Duquesne, 177; ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief by 
second Continental congress, 221; 
takes command Continental army, 
224; keeps British in Boston, 224; 
at New York with army, 234; and 
battle of Long Island, 236; re- 
treats across New Jersey, 239; 
and Charles Lee, 240; captures 
Hessians at Trenton, 241; cap- 
tures Princeton, 242; winters at 
Morristown, 243; and Howe in 
New Jersey, 255; at Germantown, 
257; at Valley Forge, 259: and 
the Conway Cabal, 262; sends aid 
to General Lincoln, 278; and 
Benedict Arnold, 280; out-generals 
Clinton, 293; at Yorktown, 293; 
greatness of, 292; resigns his 
commission, 294; inauguration as 
president, 307; and his cabinet, 
310; nominates John Jay chief 
justice, 314: and his proclamation 
of neutrality, 322; farewell ad- 
dress. 330; death of, 339 

Watt, James, and steam engine. 326 

Wayne, Anthony (Mad Anthony), 
captures Stony Point, 271; and 
Lafayette opposes Cornwallis, 291 

Weaver, James B., candidate for 
president, 608 

Webster, Daniel, and Hayne debate 
( 1 S 3 > , 421; and the Webster- 
Ashburton treaty, 447; and the 
Compromise bill of 1850 (Omni- 
bus bill), 473, 475; the death of, 
476 

Wells, Horace, discovers use of 
laughing gas in dentistry, 456 

Western Immigration, and the In- 
dians, 320; and its effect, 398 

West India Company, establishes 
colonies in the New Netherlands, 
44, 119; make settlements, 120 

West Jersey, and the Quakers, 130 

West Virginia, campaign in, 511 

Whitney, Eli, invents cotton gin, 326 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, and his 
works, 430; and slavery, 441 

Wilderness, battles, 558 

Wilkes, Captain Charles, and the 
Trent -affair, 515 

Wilmington, first settlement in 
Delaware, 138 

William and Mary's College, found- 
ed, 186 

Williams, James, in the south, 282; 



INDEX 



439 



. 



at Kings Mountain, 2S3; is killed, 
2 S3 

Williams, Robert, settles in Massa- 
chusetts, 97; moves to Salem, 97; 
called before the general court, 
97; lives with the Indians, 97; 
founds Rhode Island, 97 

Wilniot, David, and the Wilmot pro- 
viso, 466 

Wilson, Wm. L., and the Gorman 
bill. 634 

Winthrop, John, Jr., settles in Con- 
necticut, 111 

Wisconsin, admitted as state, 17a 



Witchcraft, at Salem, 102 

Winthrop, John, settles in Massa- 
chusetts, 96 

Wolfe, General, defeats Montcalm 
at Quebec, 179 

Writs of Assistance, in the colonies, 
197; James (His and the, 198 

Wyoming, admitted, 627 

Wyoming Valley, and Cherry Val- 
ley massacres, 268 

YALE COLLEGE, founded, 186 
Yorktown, Cornwallis surrenders at, 
293; captured by McClellan, 532 



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